by Peter Watson
8 Furst, Op. cit., pp. 10–11.
9 Ibid, p. 11.
10 Ibid, p. 44.
11 Ibid, pp. 45–46.
12 Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff, ‘The cultural contexts of an Aboriginal Hallucinogen: Banisteriopsis Caapi’, in Peter T. Furst (editor), Flesh of the Gods: The Ritual Use of Hallucinogens, New York: Prager, 1972,pp. 84–113.
13 Furst, Hallucinogens and Culture, Op. cit., p. 55.
14 Ibid, p. 62.
15 Ibid, p. 65.
16 Mott T. Greene, Natural Knowledge in Pre-Classical Antiquity, Op. cit., chapter 6.
17 Furst, Hallucinogens and Culture, Op. cit., p. 67.
18 Ibid, p. 81.
19 Ibid, pp. 77–78.
20 Ibid, pp. 79–80.
21 See also: Gordon R. Wasson, ‘Ololiuhqui and other Hallucinogens of Mexico’, in Summa Anthropológica en homenaje a Roberto J. Weitlaner, Mexico, DF: Instituto Nacional de Antropoligia e Historia, 1967,pp. 328–348.
22 Furst, Hallucinogens and Culture, Op. cit., p. 87.
23 Ibid, p. 109.
24 Ibid, p. 110.
25 Ibid, p. 111.
26 Ibid, p. 113.
27 For first-hand accounts, see: Barbara G. Myerhoff, The Peyote Hunt: The sacred journey of the Huichol Indians, Victor Turner (editor), Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1974; and: Fernando Benítez, In the Magic Land of Peyote, trs. John Upton, Austin, TX: The University of Texas Press, 1975.
28 Furst, Hallucinogens and Culture, Op. cit., pp. 131–132.
29 Ibid, p. 134.
30 Ibid, p. 138.
31 Ibid, p. 139.
32 Lowell J. Bean and Katherine Siva Saubel, Temalpakh: Cahuilla Indian Knowledge and Usage of Plants, Banning, CA: Malki Museum Press, 1972.
33 Richard Evans Schultes, ‘Ilex Guyana from 500 a.d. to the Present’, Gothenburg Ethnographic Museum, Etnologiska Studier,No. 32, 1972,pp. 115–138.
34 Furst, Hallucinogens and Culture, Op. cit., p. 152.
35 Ibid, p. 156.
36 Ibid, p. 158.
37 Ibid, p. 160.
38 Michael D. Coe, ‘The shadow of the Olmecs’, Horizon, Vol. 13, No. 4, 1971, pp. 970–973.
39 Julian H. Steward (editor), Handbook of South American Indians, 6 vols, Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 143, 1963; Reprint: New York, Cooper Square. See especially Vol. 1,pp. 265, 275, 424 and Vol. 3,pp. 102, 414.
40 Furst, Hallucinogens and Culture, Op. cit., pp. 166–169.
41 Michael J. Harner, Hallucinogens and Shamanism, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1973, p.xv.
42 Harner, Op. cit., p. 12.
43 Ibid, pp. 16–17.
44 Ibid, pp. 23–25.
45 Ibid, pp. 30–31.
46 Ibid, p. 38.
47 Ibid, p. 46.
48 Claudio Naranjo, The Healing Journey: New Approaches to Consciousness,New York: Pantheon, 1973, p. 122.
49 Harner, Op. cit., p. 129.
CHAPTER 13: HOUSES OF SMOKE, COCA AND CHOCOLATE
1 W. Golden Mortimer, History of Coca: ‘The Divine Plant’ of the Incas, San Francsico: And/Or Press, 1974, p. 22.
2 Dominic Steatfeild, Cocaine: An Unauthorized Biography, London: Virgin, 2001, p. 3.
3 Steatfeild, Op. cit., p. 6.
4 Ibid, p. 8.
5 Ibid, p. 10.
6 Mortimer, Op. cit., p. 155.
7 Steatfeild, Op. cit., p. 27.
8 Ibid, pp. 28–29.
9 Ibid, p. 31.
10 Francis Robicsek, The Smoking Gods: Tobacco in Mayan Art, History and Religion, Norman, OK: Oklahoma University Press, 1978,pp. 1–4.
11 Robicsek, Op. cit., p. 23.
12 Ibid, pp. 27–29.
13 Ibid, pp. 31–35.
14 Ibid, pp. 37–38.
15 Ibid, p. 43.
16 Johannes Wilbert, Tobacco and Shamanism in South America, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1993,pp. 16–17.
17 Diego Durán, Book of the Gods and Rights, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1975 (originally published 1574–76).
18 Robicsek, Op. cit., pp. 104–106.
19 Ibid, pp. 120–121.
20 Ibid, p. 157.
21 Cameron L. McNeil, Chocolate in Mesoamerica: A Cultural History of Cacao, Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida, 2006, p. 1.
22 McNeil, Op. cit., p. 8.
23 Ibid, p. 12.
24 Ibid, p. 14.
25 Ibid, p. 17.
26 Robicsek, Op. cit., p. 118.
27 Ibid, p. 141.
28 Ibid, p. 154.
29 Ibid, p. 163.
30 Sophie Coe and Michael D. Coe, The True History of Chocolate, London and New York: Thames & Hudson, 1996,pp. 98–99.
31 Furst, Hallucinogens and Culture, Op. cit., p. 156.
32 Ibid, p. 158.
33 Ibid, p. 160.
34 Michael D. Coe, ‘The shadow of the Olmecs’, Horizon, Vol. 13. No. 4, 1971, pp. 970–973.
CHAPTER 14: WILD: THE JAGUAR, THE BISON, THE SALMON
1 Wolf and Prance, Rainforests of the World, Op. cit., p. 214.
2 Nicholas J. Saunders, People of the Jaguar: The Living Spirit of Ancient America, New York and London: Souvenir Press, 1989, p. 94.
3 Elizabeth P. Benson (editor), The Cult of the Feline, Washington DC Dum-barton Oaks Research Library, 1972, p. 2.
4 Saunders, Op. cit., p. 31.
5 Benson (editor), The Cult of the Feline, Op. cit., p. 51.
6 Ibid, p. 52.
7 Ibid, pp. 54–56.
8 Ibid, p. 57.
9 Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff, Desana: Simbolism de los Indios Tukano del Vaupés, Bogotá: 1968, p. 99.
10 Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff, ‘La cultura material de los Indios Guahibo’, Revista de Instituto Etnológico Nacional (Bogotá), Vol. 1,No. 2., 1944,pp. 437– 506.
11 Benson (editor), The Cult of the Feline, Op. cit., p. 69.
12 Ibid, p. 158.
13 Saunders, Op. cit., pp. 80–82.
14 Benson (editor), The Cult of the Feline, Op. cit., p. 139.
15 Saunders, Op. cit., p. 135.
16 Benson, The Cult of the Feline, Op. cit., p. 137.
17 Ibid, p. 138.
18 Ibid, p. 140.
19 Saunders, Op. cit., p. 144.
20 Ibid.
21 Ibid, p. 147.
22 Ibid, p. 148.
23 Ibid, p. 150.
24 Brotherston, Book of the Fourth World, Op. cit., p. 242.
25 Saunders, Op. cit., p. 151.
26 Ibid, p. 152.
27 Ibid, p. 154.
28 Robert Wrangham, Catching Fire: How Cooking Made Us Human, London: Profile Books, 2009, p. 101.
29 Brian Fagan, Ancient North America, Op. cit., p. 91.
30 Ibid, p. 93.
31 Ibid, pp. 116–120.
32 Dennis Stanford, ‘The Jones Miller site: An example of Hell Gap Bison Procurement Strategy’, in L. Davis and M. Wilson (editors), ‘Bison Procurement and Utilization: A Symposium’, Plains Anthropological Memoir, Vol. 16, 1978,pp. 90–97.
33 Fagan, Ancient North America, Op. cit., p. 130.
34 Ibid.
35 G.C. Frison, Op. cit., pp. 77–91.
36 Fagan, Ancient North America, Op. cit., p. 298.
37 Ibid.
38 Ibid, p. 300.
39 Jake Page, In the Hands of the Great Spirit, Op. cit., p. 51.
40 Fagan, Ancient North America, Op. cit., p. 368.
41 Ibid, pp. 369–370.
42 Ibid, p. 372.
43 Ibid, p. 373.
44 S. Struever and F. Holton, Koster: Americans in Search of the Prehistoric Past, New York: Anchor Press, 1979.
45 Fagan, Ancient North America, Op. cit., p. 375.
46 Melvin Fowler, ‘Cahokia and the American Bottom: Settlement Archaeology’, in Bruce D. Smith (editor), Mississippian Settlement Patterns, New York: Academic Press, 1978,pp. 455–478.
CHAPTER 15: ERIDU AND ASPERO: THE FIRST CITIES SEVE
N AND A HALF THOUSAND MILES APART
1 Bernardo T. Arriaza, Beyond Death: The Chinchorro Mummies of Ancient Chile, Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1995,pp. 12ff.
2 Bernardo T. Arriaza, ‘Arsenias as an environmental hypothetical explanation for the origin of the oldest mummification practice in the world’, Chungara Revista de Antropologia Chilene, Vol. 37,No. 2, December 2005,pp. 255–260.
3 Ibid.
4 Arriaza, Beyond Death, Op. cit., pp. 61–62.
5 Ibid, p. 144.
6 Juan P. Ogalde et al., ‘Prehistoric psychotropic consumption in Andean Chilean mummies’, Nature Proceedings:hdl:10101/npre.2007,1368.1: Posted 29 November 2007.
7 Michael Moseley, The Maritime Foundations of Andean Civilization, Menlo Park, CA: Cummings, 1975.
8 Ruth Shady Solis et al., ‘Dating Caral: a pre-ceramic site in the Supe Valley on the central coast of Peru’, Science, Vol. 292, No. 5517, 27 April 2001, pp. 723–726.
9 Ibid.
10 Roger Atwood, ‘A monumental feud’, Archaeology, Vol. 58,No. 4, July/August 2005.
11 Discovermagazine.com/2005/sep/showdown-at-caral. By Kenneth Miller, p. 5 of 19.
12 Ruth Shady Solis et al., Op. cit.
13 Hans J. Nissen, The Early History of the Ancient Near East, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988,pp. 5 and 71; Petr Charvát, Mesopotamia Before History, London: Routledge, 2002, p. 134. Douglas H. Kennett et al., ‘Early State Formation in Southern Mesopotamia: Sea Levels, Shorelines, and Climate Change’, Journal of Island & Coastal Archaelogy, Vol. 1, Issue 1, 2005,pp. 67–99; DOI 10:1080/15564890600586283. T.J. Wilkinson, Archaeological Landscapes of the Near East, Op. cit., especially pp. 17–31 and 152–210.
14 Nissen, Op. cit., p. 69.
15 Ibid.
16 Gwendolyn Leick, Mesopotamia, London: Penguin, 2002, p. 2.
17 Charvát, Op. cit., p. 93.
18 Ibid. See also: ‘Oldest image of god in Americas found’, New Scientist, 19 April 2003, p. 13.
19 Nissen, Op. cit., p. 72.
20 Charvát, Op. cit., p. 134.
21 Ruth Shady Solis et al., Op. cit.
22 Mason Hammond, The City in the Ancient World, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1972, p. 39.
23 Kenneth Miller (Discover magazine), Op. cit., 4 of 19.
24 Ibid.
25 Miller, Op. cit., 5 of 19. See also: Jeffrey Quilter et al., El Niño, Catastrophism and Culture Change in Ancient America, Dumbarton Oaks Precolumbian Studies, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009.
26 Brian Fagan, From Black Lands to Fifth Sun, Op. cit., p. 63.
27 Michael E. Moseley, ‘Punctuated Equilibrium: Searching the ancient record for El Niño’, Quarterly Review of Archaeology, Vol. 8, No. 3, 1987, pp. 7–10. See also: David K. Keefer et al., ‘Early maritime economy and El Niño events at Quebrada Tacahuay, Peru’, Science, Vol. 281, No. 5384, 18 September 1998, pp 1833–35.
28 Moseley, Punctuated Equilibrium, Op. cit., and Keefer et al., Op. cit.
CHAPTER 16: THE STEPPES, WAR AND A ‘NEW ANTHROPOLOGICAL TYPE’
1 Hans J. Nissen, The Early History of the Ancient Near East, Op. cit., pp. 132–133.
2 H.W.F. Saggs, Before Greece and Rome, London: B.T. Batsford, 1989, p. 62.
3 D. Schmandt-Besserat, Before Writing, Vol 1: From Counting to Cuneiform, Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 1992.
4 Richard Rudgley, Lost Civilizations of the Stone Age, London: Orion, 1998, p. 50.
5 Ibid.
6 Ibid, p. 54. The French scholar who has cast doubt on this reconstruction is: Jean-Jacques Glassner, in The Invention of the Cuneiform: Writing in Sumer, Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003.
7 Leick, Op. cit., p. 75.
8 Nissen, Op. cit., p. 136.
9 Saggs, Op. cit., p. 105.
10 Ibid, p. 111.
11 Lionel Casson, Libraries in the Ancient World, New Haven, CT and London: Yale University Press, 2001, p. 4.
12 Ibid, p. 13.
13 Saggs, Op. cit., pp. 156–158.
14 Fredrick R. Matson (editor), Ceramics and Man, London: Methuen, 1966, pp. 141–143.
15 Leslie Aitchison, A History of Metals, London: Macdonald, 1960, p. 37.
16 Ibid, p. 40.
17 Ibid, p. 41.
18 Theodore Wertime et al. (editors), The Coming of the Age of Iron, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1980, p. 36.
19 Aitchison (editor), Op. cit., p. 78.
20 Ibid, p. 82.
21 Ibid.
22 Ibid.
23 Ibid, p. 98.
24 Stuart Piggott, Wagon, Chariot and Carriage, London and New York: Thames & Hudson, 1992, p. 16.
25 Ibid, p. 21.
26 Robert Drews, The End of the Bronze Age: Changes in Warfare and the Catastrophe ca. 1200 BC, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994, p. 104.
27 Drews, Op. cit., p. 106.
28 Ibid, p. 112.
29 Ibid, p. 119.
30 Ibid, p. 125.
31 Anne Baring and Jules Cashford, The Myth of the Goddess, Op. cit., pp. 115–116.
32 Ibid, p. 140. Deborah Valenze, Milk: a Local and Global History, Yale, CT and London: Yale University Press, 2011, p. 17.
33 Ibid.
34 Ibid, p. 190.
35 Ibid, p. 209.
36 Ibid, p. 234.
37 Ibid, p. 277.
38 Ibid, p. 278.
39 Elena Efimovna Kuzmina, The Prehistory of the Silk Road, editor Victor H. Mair, Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008, p. 10.
40 Gérard Chaliand, Nomadic Empires: From Mongolia to the Danube, trs. A.M. Berrett, Rutgers, NJ: Transaction, 2005,pp. 8–10.
41 Kuzmina, Op. cit., pp. 88 and 100.
42 Ibid, p. 4.
43 Braudel, Op. cit., pp. 110–111.
44 A.M. Khazanov, Nomads and the Outside World, trs. Julia Crookenden, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1984, p. 92.
45 John Larner, Marco Polo and the Discovery of the World, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1999, p. 25.
46 Chaliand, Op. cit., p. 7.
47 Khazanov, Op. cit., p. 96.
48 Ibid, p. 43.
49 Ibid, p. 32.
50 Ibid, p. 51.
51 Ibid, p. 69.
52 M.L. Ryder, Sheep and Man, London: Duckworth, 1983, p. 10.
53 Ryder, Op. cit., p. 80.
54 Ibid, pp. 652–655.
55 Hannah Velten, Cow, London: Reaktion Books, 2007, p. 13.
56 Velten, Op. cit., p. 34.
57 Ibid, p. 77.
58 Ibid, p. 106.
59 Nicola di Cosmo, Ancient China and Its Enemies: the rise of nomadic power in East Asian history, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2004, p. 32.
60 Khazanov, Op. cit., p. 71.
61 Kuzmina, Op. cit., p. 62.
62 Khazanov, Op. cit., p. 82.
63 Chaliand, Op. cit., p. xii.
64 Ernest Gellner, Plough, Sword and Book: The Structure of Human History, London: Collins Harvill, 1988, p. 154.
65 Chaliand, Op. cit., p. 11.
66 Kuzmina, Op. cit., p. 161.
67 Di Cosmo, Op. cit., p. 31.
68 Ibid, p. 32.
69 Kuzmina, Op. cit., p. 65.
70 Baring and Cashford, Op. cit., p. 156.
71 Ibid.
72 Chaliand, Op. cit., p. 12.
73 Baring and Cashford, Op. cit., pp. 156–158.
74 Ibid.
75 Joseph Campbell, The Masks of God: Occidental Mythology, London: Secker & Warburg, 4 vols, 1960–68, Vol. 1,pp. 21–22.
CHAPTER 17: THE DAY OF THE JAGUAR
1 Brian Fagan, Kingdoms of Gold, Kingdoms of Jade: The Americas Before Columbus, London and New York: Thames & Hudson, 1991, p. 96.
2 Ibid, p. 97.
3 Ibid, p. 98.
4 Ibid, p. 99.
5 John E. Clark and Pary E. Pye (editors), Olmec Art and Archaeology in Mesoamerica, Washington, DC: National Gallery of Art/Y
ale University Press, 2000, p. 219.
6 Fagan, Op. cit., p. 103.
7 David Grove, Chalcatzingo: Excavations on the Olmec Frontier, London and New York: Thames & Hudson, 1984,pp. 104–105.
8 Clark and Pye (editors), Op. cit., p. 23.
9 Ibid, p. 164.
10 Ibid, p. 88.
11 Ibid, p. 89.
12 Grove, Op. cit., p. 126.
13 Ibid, p. 116.
14 Ibid, p. 208.
15 Ibid, p. 209.
16 Ibid, p. 186.
17 Ibid, p. 165.
18 Ibid, p. 164.
19 William J. Conklin and Jeffrey Quilter (editors), Chavin Art, Architecture and Culture, Los Angeles and Berkeley: University of California Press/Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, 2008, p. 119.
20 Ibid, pp. 158–159.
21 Ibid, p. 154.
22 Ibid, pp. 275–277.
23 Ibid.
24 Clark and Pye (editors), Op. cit., p. 167.
25 Richard L. Burger, Chavin and the Origin of Andean Civilization, London and New York: Thames & Hudson, 1995, p. 128.
26 Conklin and Quilter (editors), Op. cit., p. 152.
27 Burger, Op. cit., p. 167.
28 Conklin and Quilter (editors), Op. cit., p. 210.
29 Burger, Op. cit., p. 170.
30 Conklin and Quilter (editors), Op. cit., p. 80.
31 Ibid, p. 135.
32 Ibid, p. 170.
33 Burger, Op. cit., p. 171.
34 Ibid, p. 216.
35 Ibid, p. 157.
36 Conklin and Quilter (editors), p. 259.
37 Burger, Op. cit., p. 157.
38 Ibid.
39 Conklin and Quilter (editors), Op. cit., pp. 259–260.
40 Burger, Op. cit., p. 159.
41 Ibid.
42 Ibid, p. 189.
43 Conklin and Quilter (editors), Op. cit., p. 112.
44 Ibid, p. 26.
45 Ibid, p. 30.
46 Ibid, p. 195.
47 Ibid, p. 196.
48 Ibid, p. 198.
49 Burger, Op. cit., p. 202.
50 Ibid, p. 203.
CHAPTER 18: THE INVENTION OF MONOTHEISM AND THE END OF SACRIFICE IN THE OLD WORLD
1 Karen Armstrong, The Great Transformation: The World in the Time of the Buddha, Socrates, Confucius and Jeremiah, London: Atlantic/Knopf, 2006, p. xii.
2 V. Gordon Chile, Prehistoric Migrations in Europe, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1950, p. 180.
3 Drews, Op. cit., p. 97.