The First World War

by Hew Strachan

  27 Daille, Joffre et la guerre d’usure, p. 256.

  28 Elizabeth Greenhalgh, ‘Why the British Were on the Somme in 1916’, War in History, vol. 6 (1999), p. 156.

  29 Jacques Péricard, Verdun. Histoire des combats qui sont livrés de 1914 à 1918 sur les deux rives de La Meuse (Paris, 1934), p. 80.

  30 German Werth, Verdun. Die Schlacht und der Mythos (Bergisch Gladbach, 1979), p. 72.

  31 Alistair Horne, The Price of Glory: Verdun 1916 (London, 1962), p. 39.

  32 Ian Ousby, The Road to Verdun: France, Nationalism and the First World War (London, 2002), p. 195.

  33 Stephen Ryan, Pétain the Soldier (Cranbury, NJ, 1969), p. 74.

  34 Philippe Pétain, Verdun, trans. Margaret MacVeagh (London, 1936), pp. 100-1.

  35 Ousby, The Road to Verdun, p. 206.

  36 Gerard De Groot, Douglas Haig, 1861-1928 (London, 1988), p. 238.

  37 Guy Chapman, Vain Glory (London, 1937), p. 320.

  38 Tim Travers, The Killing Ground: The British Army, the Western Front and the Emergence of Modern Warfare 1900-1918 (London, 1987), p. 178.

  39 Fayolle, Cahiers secrets, p. 167.

  40 P. Lucas, L’Evolution des idées tactigues en France et en Allemagne pendant la guerre de 1914-1918 (Paris, 1924), p. 158.

  41 David Woodward, ‘Britain in a Continental War: The Civil-Military Debate over the Strategical Direction of the Great War of 1914-1918’, Albion, vol. 12 (1980), pp. 37-65.

  CHAPTER 7: BLOCKADE

  1 B. McL. Ranft (ed.), The Beatty Papers, (2 vols, Aldershot, 1989-92), vol. 1, pp. 145-6.

  2 Ibid., pp. 36-7.

  3 Patrick Beesley, Room 40: British Naval Intelligence 1914-1918 (London, 1982), pp. 36-7.

  4 Ranft, The Beatty Papers, p. 211.

  5 Jon Sumida, In Defence of Naval Supremacy: Finance, Technology and British Naval Policy, 1889-1914 (Boston, MA, 1989), pp. 297-9.

  6 A. Temple Patterson, The Jellicoe Papers (2 vols, London, 1966-8), vol. 1, p. 76.

  7 Andrew Gordon, The Rules of the Game: Jutland and British Naval Command (London, 1996), p. 112.

  8 V. E. Tarrant, Jutland: The German Perspective (London, 1995), p. 107.

  9 Geoffrey Bennett, Naval Battles of the First World War (London, 1968), p. 256.

  10 Lord Hankey, The Supreme Command 1914-1918 (2 vols, London, 1961), vol. 2, p. 858.

  11 Anne Roerkohl, Hungersblockade und Heimatfront. Die kommunale Lehensmittelversorgung in Westfalen während des Ersten Weltkrieges (Stuttgart, 1991), p. 306.

  12 A. C. Bell, A History of the Blockade of Germany (London, 1937), p. 672.

  13 Charles Gilbert, American Financing of World War I (Westport, CT, 1970), pp. 33, 37.

  14 M. W. W. P. Consett, The Triumph of Unarmed Forces (1914-1918) (London, 1923), p. 184.

  15 Bell, A History of the Blockade, pp. 250-1.

  16 Gerd Hardach, The First World War 1914-1918 (London, 1977), pp. 32-3.

  17 Avner Offer, The First World War: An Agrarian Interpretation (Oxford, 1989), pp. 33, 45-53.

  18 Belinda J. Davis, Home Fires Burning: Food, Politics, and Everyday Life in World War I Berlin (Chapel Hill, NC, 2000), pp. 205-6.

  19 Roerkohl, Hungersblockade und Heimatfront, pp. 95, 211-27.

  20 Caroline Ethel Cooper, Behind the Lines: One Woman’s War 1914-1918, ed. Decie Denholm (London, 1982), p. 165.

  21 Joe Lee, ’Administrators and Agriculture: Aspects of German Agricultural Policy in the First World War‘, in J. M. Winter (ed.), War and Economic Policy (Cambridge, 1975), pp. 231-4.

  22 Davis, Home Fires Burning, p. 162.

  23 Roerkohl, Hungersblockade and Heimatfront, p. 33.

  24 Cooper, Behind the Lines, p. 233.

  25 Ibid., p. 270.

  26 Paul Halpern, A Naval History of World War (London, 1994), p. 296.

  27 Charles Seymour, The Intimate Papers of Colonel House (2 vols, London, 1926), vol. 1, p. 437.

  28 Thomas J. Knock, To End All Wars: Woodrow Wilson and the Quest for a New World Order (New York, 1992), p. 60.

  29 Walter Görlitz (ed.), The Kaiser and His Court: the diaries of Admiral Georg von Müller (London, 1961), p. 229.

  30 Hans Peter Hanssen, Diary of a Dying Empire (Port Washington, NY, 1973), p. 161.

  31 John Whiteclay Chambers (ed.), The Eagle and the Dove: The American Peace Movement and United States Foreign Policy 1900-1922 (Syracuse, NY, 1991), pp. 113-4.

  32 Kathleen Burk, Britain, America and the Sinews of War 1914-1918 (Boston, 1985), pp. 80-95.

  33 William S. Sims, The Victory at Sea (London, 1920), p. 39.

  CHAPTER 8: REVOLUTION

  1 Brock Millman, Pessimism and British War Policy 1916-1918 (London, 2001), p. 30.

  2 David Woodward (ed.), The Military Correspondence of Field-Marshal Sir William Robertson (London, 1989), p. 320.

  3 Lord Riddell’s War Diary 1914-1918 (London, 1933), p. 220.

  4 Bentley Brinkerhoff Gilbert, David Lloyd George: A Political Life: The Organizer of Victory 1912-16 (London, 1992), p. 369.

  5 Ibid., pp. 375-6.

  6 Daniel Halévy, L’Europe brisée (Paris, 1998), pp. 233-8.

  7 Jean-Baptiste Duroselle, La Grande Guerre des français (Paris, 1994), p. 157.

  8 Gaëtan Gallieni (ed.), Les Carnets de Gallieni (Paris, 1932), p. 205.

  9 Jere Clemens King, Generals and Politicians (Berkeley, CA, 1951), p. 108.

  10 Richard Lambert, The Parliamentary History of Conscription in Great Britain (London, 1917), p. iv.

  11 William Robert Scott, Economic Problems of Peace after War (Cambridge, 1917), pp. 12-13.

  12 Gilbert, David Lloyd George, pp. 419, 424.

  13 Raymond Pearson, The Russian Moderates and the Crisis of Tsarism 1914-1917 (London, 1977), p. 51.

  14 Dominic Lieven, Nicholas II (London, 1993), p. 211.

  15 Joseph Furmann (ed.), The Complete Wartime Correspondence of Tsar Nicholas II and the Empress Alexandra (Westport, CT, 1999), p. 181.

  16 George Buchanan, My Mission to Russia and Other Diplomatic Memories (2 vols, London, 1923), vol. 2, pp. 4, 31.

  17 Robert McKean, St Petersburg between the Revolutions (New Haven, CT, 1990), pp. 327, 336-45.

  18 W. Bruce Lincoln, Passage through Armageddon: The Russians in War- and Revolution 1914-1918 (New York, 1986), pp. 315, 318.

  19 Furmann, The Complete Wartime Correspondence, p. 692.

  20 Buchanan, My Mission to Russia, vol. 2, p. 48.

  21 Keith Neilson, Strategy and Supply: The Anglo-Russian Alliance 1914-17 (London, 1984), pp. 251-2.

  22 Maurice Paléologue, An Ambassadors Memoirs, trans. F. A. Holt (3 vols, London, 1925), vol. 3, p. 228.

  23 Guy Pedroncini, ‘Les Rapports du gouvernement et du haut commandement en France en 1917’, Revue d’histoire moderne et contemporaine, vol. 15 (1968), p. 128.

  24 Trevor Wilson, The Myriad Faces of War (Cambridge, 1986), p. 453.

  25 Reginald H. Roy (ed.), The Journal of Private Fraser (Victoria, BC, 1985), pp. 261, 263.

  26 R. G. Nobécourt, Les Fantassins du Chemin des Dames (Paris, 1965), p. 220.

  27 Jean-Jacques Becker, The Great War and the French People, trans. Arnold Pomerans (Leamington Spa, 1985), pp. 226-35.

  28 Lionel Lemarchand, Lettres censurées des tranchées 1917 (Paris, 2001), p. 144.

  29 Guy Pedroncini, Les Mutineries de 1917 (Paris, 1967), pp. 194, 211-2.

  30 A. Temple Patterson, The Jellicoe Papers (2 vols, London 1966-8), vol. 2, p. 161; italics in the original.

  31 Woodward, Correspondence of Robertson, p. 179.

  32 General Palat [Pierre Lehautcourt], La Grande Guerre sur le front occidental, (14 vols, Paris, 1917-29), vol. 12, pp. 400-1.

  33 David Woodward, Lloyd George and the Generals (Newark, NJ, 1983), pp. 163-4.

  34 John Terraine, The Road to Passchendaele (London, 1977), p. 119.

  35 Robin Prior and Trevor Wilson, Passchendaele : The Untold Story (New Haven, CT, 1996), p. 160.

  36 Ibi
d., p. 196.

  37 John R. Schindler, Isonzo: The Forgotten Sacrifice of the Great War (Westport, CT, 2001), p. 242.

  38 John Gooch, ‘Morale and Discipline in the Italian Army’, in Hugh Cecil and Peter Liddle (eds), Facing Armageddon (London, 1996), p. 441.

  39 Erwin Rommel, Attacks, trans. J. R. Driscoll (Vienna, VA, 1979), p. 214.

  40 Luigi Tomassini, ‘The Home Front in Italy’, in Hugh Cecil and Peter Liddle (eds), Facing Armageddon (London, 1996), p. 586. For what follows, see also Giovanna Procacci, ‘Popular Protest and Labour Conflict in Italy, 1915-18’, Social History, vol. 14 (1989), pp. 31-58.

  41 Georges Clemenceau, Discours de guerre (Paris, 1968), pp. 166-7; see also p. 131.

  42 Jean Nicot, Les Poilus ont la parole: lettres du front: 1917-1918 (Brussels, 1998), p. 261.

  43 Irina Davidian, ’The Russian Soldier’s Morale from the Evidence of Tsarist Military Censorship‘, in Hugh Cecil and Peter Liddle (eds), Facing Armageddon (London, 1996), p. 432.

  44 Allan K. Wildman, The End of the Russian Imperial Army: The Old Army and the Soldiers’ Revolt (March-April 1917) (Princeton, NJ, 1980), p. 245.

  45 Elie Halévy, The World Crisis of 1914-1918 (Oxford, 1930), p. 5.

  CHAPTER 9: GERMANY’S LAST GAMBLE

  1 W. Bruce Lincoln, Passage through Armageddon: The Russians in War and Revolution 1914-1918 (New York 1986), pp. 502-3.

  2 Jean-Noel Grandhomme, Michel Roucaud and Thierry Sarmant (eds), La Roumanie dans la Grande Guerre et l’effondrement de l‘armée russe (Paris, 2000), pp. 415, 423.

  3 Jean Nicot, Les Poilus ont la parole: lettres du front: 1917-1918 (Brussels, 1998), p. 333.

  4 Jürgen Kocka, Facing Total War: German Society 1914-1918, trans. Barbara Weinberger (Leamington Spa, 1984), pp. 19, 85-6.

  5 Caroline Ethel Cooper, Behind the Lines: One Woman’s War 1914-1918, ed. Decie Denholm (London, 1982), p. 182.

  6 J. P. Nettl, Rosa Luxemburg (Oxford, 1969), p. 387.

  7 Gerald Feldman, Army, Industry and Labor in Germany 1914-1918 (Princeton, NJ, 1966), p. 360.

  8 R. H. Lutz (ed.), Documents of the German Revolution : Fall of the German Empire (2 vols, Stanford, CA, 1932), vol. 2, pp. 262-6.

  9 Hans Peter Hanssen, Diary of a Dying Empire (Port Washington, NY, 1973), p. 225.

  10 Holger Afflerbach, ’Wilhelm II as Supreme Warlord in the First World War‘, War in History, vol. 5 (1998), p. 445.

  11 Hanssen, Diary of a Dying Empire, p. 231.

  12 Daniel Horn (ed.), The Private War of Seaman Stumpf (London, 1969), p. 345.

  13 Martin Kitchen, The Silent Dictatorship: The Politics of the High Command under Hindenburg and Ludendorff 1916-1918 (London, 1976), pp. 170-1.

  14 Bernard P. Bellon, Mercedes in Peace and War: German Automobile Workers (New York, 1990), pp. 89-92,102-12.

  15 Walter Görlitz (ed.), The Kaiser and His Court: the diaries of Admiral Georg von Müller (London, 1961), p. 190.

  16 Bernd Ulrich and Benjamin Ziemann, Frontalltag im Ersten Weltkrieg (Frankfurt, 1994), pp. 184, 131.

  17 Paul Christophe (ed.), Les Carnets du Cardinal Alfred Baudrillart (Paris, 1994), p. 94.

  18 Christoph Jahr, Gewöhnliche Soldaten (Göttingen, 1998), p. 283.

  19 Dominique Richert, Cahiers d’un survivant (Strasbourg, 1994), p. 156.

  20 Octavian Tsluanu, With the Austrian Army in Galicia (London, 1918), p. 193.

  21 Eduard März, Austrian Banking and Financial Policy (London, 1984), pp. 16, 113, 121-2, 164, 177-8.

  22 Wilhelm Winkler, Die Einkommensverschiehungen in Österreich während des Weltkrieges (Vienna, 1930), pp. 47-8.

  23 August von Cramon, Unser Österreich-Ungarischer Bundesgenosse im Weltkriege (Berlin, 1920), p. 89.

  24 Arthur May, The Passing of the Hapsburg Monarcby (Philadelphia, PA, 1966), p. 642.

  25 Ibid., p. 687.

  26 Görlitz, The Kaiser and His Court, p. 252.

  27 Felix Guse, Die Kaukasusfront im Weltkrieg (Leipzig, 1940), p. 93.

  28 Carl Mhlmann, Das deutsch-türkische Waffenbndnis im Weltkrieg (Leipzig, 1940), p. 120.

  29 Kress von Kressenstein, quoted in Jehuda Wallach, Anatomie einer Miltärhilfe (Dusseldorf, 1976), p. 220.

  30 Richard Meinertzhagen, Army Diary 1899-1926 (Edinburgh, 1960), p. 219.

  31 David French, The Strategy of the Lloyd George Coalition (Oxford, 1995), p. 133.

  32 Ion Idriess, The Desert Column (Sydney, 1982), pp. 248, 261.

  33 Briton C. Busch, Britain, India and the Arabs (Berkeley, CA, 1971), p. 52.

  34 Elie Kedourie, England and the Middle East (London, 1956), p. 103.

  35 L. Schatkowski Schilcher, ‘The Famine of 1915-1918 in Greater Syria’, in John Spagnolo (ed.), Problems of the Modern Middle East in Historical Perspective (Reading, 1992), p. 248.

  36 Idriess, The Desert Column, pp. 271-2.

  37 Ahmed Fmin, Turkey in the World War (New Haven, CT, 1930), pp. 144-51, 253.

  38 Max Hoffmann, War Diaries and Other Papers (2 vols, London, 1929), vol. 1, p. 207.

  39 Richard G. Hovannisian, Armenia on the Road to Independence 1918 (Berkeley, CA, 1967), p. 195.

  40 Ottokar Czernin, Im Weltkriege (Berlin, 1919), pp. 322-3.

  41 Josef Redlich, Schicksalsjahre Ostezreichs 1908-1919. Das politische Tagebuch Josef Redlichs, ed. Fritz Fellner (2 vols, Graz, 1953), vol. 2, p. 256.

  42 Richard Plaschka, Horst Haselsteiner and Arnold Suppan, Innere Front, vol 1 (Munich, 1974), p. 60.

  43 Dorothea Groener-Geyer, General Groener (Frankfurt am Main, 1955), p. 81.

  44 Kitchen, The Silent Dictatorship, pp. 234-5.

  45 Czernin, Im Weltkriege, pp. 344-5.

  46 Evelyn, Princess Blücher, An English Wife in Berlin (London, 1920), p. 193.

  47 Benjamin Ziemann, ‘Enttäuschte Erwartung und kollektive Erschopfung. Die deutsche Soldaten an der Westfront 1918 auf dem Weg zur Revolution’, in Jörg Duppler and Gerhard P. Gross (eds), Kriegsende 1918 (Munich, 1999), p. 170.

  48 Giordan Fong, ‘The Movement of German Divisions to the Western Front, Winter 1917-1918’, War in History, vol. 7 (2000), pp. 225-35.

  49 Gregory Martin, ’German Strategy and Military Assessments of the American Expeditionary Force‘, War in History, vol. 1 (1994), p. 179.

  50 Holger Herwig, The First World War: Germany and Austria-Hungary 1914-1918 (London, 1997), p. 319.

  51 P. E. Dewey, British Agriculture in the First World War (London, 1989), p. 244.

  52 J. M. Winter, The Great War and the British People (Basingstoke, 1985), pp. 104-24.

  53 Cate Haste, Keep the Home Fires Burning: propaganda in the First World War (London, 1977), p. 43.

  54 Martin Kitchen, The Gezman Offerzsives of 1918 (Stroud, 2001), p. 16.

  55 Rupprecht, Kronprinz von Bayern, Mein Kriegstagebuch (3 vols, Berlin, 1929), vol. 2, p. 322.

  56 Ibid., p. 320.

  57 Lutz, Fall of the German Empire, vol. 1, pp. 642-3.

  58 Ulrich and Ziemann, Frontalltag im Ersten Weltkrieg, p. 197.

  59 Lyn Macdonald, To the Last Man: Spring 1918 (London, 1998), pp. 92-3.

  60 Tim Travers, How the War Was Won (London, 1992), p. 55.

  61 Rupprecht, Mein Kriegstagebuch, vol. 2, p. 351.

  62 Rudolph Binding, A Fatalist at War (London, 1929), p. 208.

  63 Wilhelm Deist, ’The Military Collapse of the German Empire: The Reality behind the Stab-in-the-back Myth‘, War in History, vol. 3 (1996), pp. 199, 203.

  64 Gerhard Ritter, The Sword and the Sceptre: the problem of militarism in Germany (4 vols, London, 1971-3), vol. 4, p. 232.

  65 Mühlmann, Das deutsch-türkische Waffenbündnis, p. 197.

  66 Ibid., p. 211.

  67 Cramon, Unser Osterreich-Ungarischer Bundesgenosse, p. 72.

  CHAPTER 10: WAR WITHOUT END

  1 John Whiteclay Chambers (ed.), The Eagle and the Dove: The American Peace Movement and United States Foreign Policy 1900-1922 (Syracuse, NY, 1991), p. 131.

  2 Lloyd Geo
rge, War Memoirs (2 vols, London, 1938), vol. 2, p. 1513.

  3 Chambers, The Eagle and the Dove, p. 131.

  4 Niall Ferguson, The Pity of War (London, 1998), pp. 248-9.

  5 David Trask, The AEF and Coalition Warmaking 1917-1918 (Kansas, 1993), pp. 12, 16-17.

  6 Mario Morselli, Caporetto 1917: Victory or Defeat? (London, 2001), p. 111.

  7 Harald Høiback, Command and Control in Military Crisis (London, 2003), pp. 20, 44.

  8 F. M. Cutlack (ed.), War Letters of General Monash (Sydney, 1935), p. 223.

  9 Georges Clemenceau, Grandeurs et misères d’une victoire (Paris, 1930), p. 20.

  10 Ibid., p. 22.

  11 Hubert Gough, The March Retreat (London, 1934), pp. 154-5.

  12 Robert Blake (ed.), The Private Papers of Douglas Haig (London, 1952), p. 303.

  13 Guy Pedroncini, Pétain: général-en-chef (Paris, 1974), p. 360.

  14 Rudolph Binding, A Fatalist at War (London, 1929), p. 234.

  15 Wilhelm, Kronprinz von Preussen, Meine Erinnerungen aus Deutschlands Heldenkampf (Berlin, 1923), p. 338.

  16 Vera Brittain, Testament of Youth: An Autobiographical Study of the Years 1900-1925 (London, 1978), pp. 420-1.

  17 John Morrow, The Great War in the Air (Shrewsbury, 1993), p. 322; for 1918 production, see also J. M. Spaight, The Beginnings of Organised Air Power (London, 1927), p. 293.

  18 Binding, A Fatalist at War, p. 239.

  19 J. P. Harris, Men, Ideas and Tanks (Manchester, 1995), p. 89.

  20 James H. Hallas (ed.), Doughboy War: The American Expeditionary Force in World War I (Boulder, CO, 2000), p. 174.

  21 Charles Mangin, Lettres de guerre 1914-1918 (Paris, 1950), p. 284.

  22 Rupprecht, Kronprinz von Bayern, Mein Kriegstagebuch (3 vols, Berlin, 1929), vol. 2, pp. 424-5, 430.

  23 Memoirs of Marshal Foch (London, 1931), pp. 427-8.

  24 Robin Prior and Trevor Wilson, Command on the Western Front (Oxford, 1992), p. 311.

  25 Gerhard Ritter, The Sword and the Sceptre: the problem of militarism in Germany (4 vols, London, 1971-73), vol. 4, p. 331.

  26 Mark Cornwall, The Undermining of Austria-Hungary: the battle for hearts and minds (Basingstoke, 2000), p. 305.

  27 Blake, The Private Papers of Douglas Haig, p. 324.