Cities of Empire

by Tristram Hunt

  44. Drayton (2002).

  45. See Blackburn (1997). For new thinking on the impact of slave financing on Scotland’s textile industry, see T. W. Devine, To the Ends of the Earth: Scotland’s Global Diaspora, 1750–2010 (London, 2011).

  46. Bryan Edwards, The History, Civil and Commercial, of the British West Indies (London, 1819), vol. 3, p. 433.

  47. Oldmixon (1708), pp. 79–80.

  48. Welch (2003), p. 35.

  49. See Welch (2003).

  50. Frere (1768), p. 112.

  51. Atkins (1970), p. 206.

  52. Eaden (1931), p. 121.

  53. Oldmixon (1708), p. 79.

  54. Atkins (1970), p. 206.

  55. Welch (2003), p. 45.

  56. See Henry Fraser, ‘Historic Bridgetown – Development and Architecture’, in Woodville Marshall and Pedro Welch (eds.), Beyond the Bridge (Cave Hill, 2005).

  57. See Martyn J. Bowden, ‘The Three Centuries of Bridgetown: An Historical Geography’, Journal of the Barbados Museum and Historical Society (2003), 49, 1–138.

  58. See S. D. Smith, Slavery, Family and Gentry Capitalism in the British Atlantic (Cambridge, 2006).

  59. Quoted in O’Shaughnessy (2000), p. 11.

  60. Parker (2011), pp. 17, 37.

  61. The Life and Works of John Adams (Boston, 1853), vol. 8, p. 74, quoted in Karl Watson, The Civilised Island, Barbados: A Social History, 1750–1816 (Bridgetown, 1979), p. 14.

  62. Welch (2003), p. 59.

  63. See Ian K. Steele, ‘Introduction’, The English Atlantic 1675–1740: An Exploration of Communication and Community (Oxford, 1986).

  64. See Smith (2006); S. D. Smith, ‘Gedney Clarke of Salem and Barbados: Transatlantic Super-Merchant’, The New England Quarterly, 76, 4 (December 2003).

  65. Parker (2011), pp. 241, 320.

  66. O’Shaughnessy (2000), pp. 66, 98–9.

  67. Quoted in Jack P. Greene, ‘Liberty and Slavery’, in Jack P. Greene (ed.), Exclusionary Empire: English Liberty Overseas 1600–1900 (Cambridge, 2010), p. 61.

  68. See Parker (2011).

  69. George Pinckard, Notes on the West Indies (London, 1816), vol. 1, p. 346.

  70. Quennell (1960), p. 190.

  71. William Dickson, Mitigation of Slavery (1814) (Westport, 1970), p. 374.

  72. E. Bowen, A Complete System of Geography (London, 1747), vol. 2, p. 752.

  73. See Watson (1979).

  74. Barbados Mercury, 27 October 1781.

  75. A. F. Wedd (ed.), The Fate of the Fenwicks: Letters [Mainly Written by E. Fenwick] to Mary Hays (1798–1828) Anon. (London, 1927), pp. 62–3.

  76. Dickson (1789), pp. 38–9, 26.

  77. See Beckles (1990).

  78. Welch (2003), pp. 151–7.

  79. Pinckard (1816), vol. 1, pp. 115, 116.

  80. J. W. Orderson, Creolena: or, Social and Domestic Scenes and Incidents in Barbados in Days of Yore (London, 1842), pp. 95–6.

  81. Welch (2003), p. 172.

  82. The Barbadian, 21 May 1842, quoted in Neville Connell, ‘Prince William Henry’s Visits to Barbados in 1786 and 1789’, Journal of the Barbados Museum and Historical Society, 25, 4 (1958), pp. 157–64.

  83. John Poyer, The History of Barbados (London, 1808), p. 576.

  84. Orderson (1842), pp. 99–101, 102.

  85. See Welch (2003), p. 172; W. Alleyne, Historic Bridgetown (Bridgetown, 1978).

  86. Henry Nelson Coleridge, Six Months in the West Indies in 1825, 4th edition (London, 1841), pp. 37–8.

  CHAPTER 3: DUBLIN

    1. Arthur Young, A Tour in Ireland (Cambridge, 1983), p. 4.

    2. Anon., The History of Ned Evans (London, 1797), vol. 2, p. 38.

    3. http://www.visitdublin.com/downloads/georgianguide.pdf (accessed 19 December 2011).

    4. Quoted in Kevin Corrigan Kearns, Georgian Dublin (London, 1983), p. 70.

    5. Kevin Corrigan Kearns, ‘Preservation and Transformation of Georgian Dublin’, Geographical Review, 72, 3 (1982), pp. 273–4.

    6. Guardian, 21 May 2011.

    7. Observer, 22 May 2011.

    8. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, Collected Works (New York, 1983), vol. 40, p. 49; vol. 43, p. 409.

    9. See Jane H. Ohlmeyer, ‘“Civilizinge of those Rude Partes”: Colonization within Britain and Ireland, 1580s–1640s’, in Nicholas Canney (ed.), The Oxford History of the British Empire, vol. 1: The Origins of Empire (Oxford, 1998).

  10. Christopher Hill, God’s Englishman: Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution (London, 2000), p. 146.

  11. John Darwin, Unfinished Empire: The Global Expansion of Britain (London, 2012), p. 76.

  12. Peter J. Stanlis (ed.), Edmund Burke: Selected Writings and Speeches (New Brunswick, 2009), p. 319.

  13. Thomas Bartlett, ‘Ireland, Empire, and Union, 1690–1801’, in Kevin Kenny (ed.), Ireland and the British Empire (Oxford, 2004), pp. 60–71.

  14. W. E. H. Lecky, Ireland in the Eighteenth Century (1892) (London, 1913), vol. 1, pp. 321–2.

  15. See R. F. Foster, Modern Ireland (London, 1988), p. 170.

  16. Thomas Bartlett, ‘“This Famous island set in a Virginian sea”: Ireland in the British Empire, 1690–1801’, in P. J. Marshall (ed.), The Oxford History of the British Empire, vol. 2: The Eighteenth Century (Oxford, 2001), p. 253.

  17. ‘Henry Grattan’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (Oxford, 2010).

  18. Burke to the Duke of Portland, 25 May 1782, in T. Copeland et al. (eds.), The Correspondence of Edmund Burke (Cambridge, 1958–70), vol. 4, p. 455, quoted in Bartlett (2004), p. 78.

  19. Quoted in Constantia Maxwell, Dublin under the Georges (London, 1956), p. 89.

  20. Foster (1988), p. 201. See also, Francis G. James, ‘Irish Colonial Trade in the Eighteenth Century’, The William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd Series, 20, 4(1963); R. C. Nash, ‘Irish Atlantic Trade in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries’, The William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd Series, 42, 3(1985).

  21. Lecky (1913), vol. 1, p. 325.

  22. See Kieran Burns, ‘The History of 29 FitzWilliam Street’, Dublin Historical Record, 57, 1 (2004).

  23. Sir Jonah Barrington, Historic Memoirs of Ireland (London, 1835), vol. 1, p. 7.

  24. Quoted in Maxwell (1956), p. 102.

  25. Edward Wakefield, An Account of Ireland Statistical and Political (London, 1812), vol. 2, p. 783.

  26. Edward Melville, Sketches of Society in France and Ireland in the years 1805–6–7 by a Citizen of the United States (Dublin, 1811), vol. 1, pp. 111–12.

  27. T. Campbell, A Philosophical Survey of the South of Ireland (London, 1777), p. 29.

  28. Quoted in Wakefield (1812), vol. 2, pp. 789–90.

  29. Anon. (1797), p. 46.

  30. Young (1983), pp. 4, 5, 203.

  31. Quoted in William Hague, William Pitt the Younger (London, 2004), p. 186.

  32. ‘Charles Manners, Fourth Duke of Rutland’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (Oxford, 2010).

  33. Nathaniel Jefferys, An Englishman’s Descriptive Account of Dublin (London, 1810), p. 57.

  34. John Roche Ardill, The Closing of the Irish Parliament (Dublin, 1907), p. 140.

  35. See Tighearnan Mooney and Fiona White, ‘The Gentry’s Winter Season’, in David Dickson (ed.), The Gorgeous Mask: Dublin, 1700–1850 (Dublin, 1987).

  36. Richard Luckett, Handel’s Messiah: A Celebration (London, 1992), p. 125.

  37. De Latocnaye, A Frenchman’s Walk through Ireland (1798) (Cambridge, 1984), p. 24.

  38. Campbell (1777), p. 26.

  39. See Gary A. Boyd, Dublin 1745–1922: Hospitals, Spectacle and Vice (Dublin, 2006).

  40. Paula Lynch, ‘A Dublin Street: North Great George’s Street’, Dublin Historical Record, 31, 1 (1977), p. 14; Kieran Burns, ‘The History of 29 FitzWilliam Street’, Dublin
Historical Record, 57, 1 (2004).

  41. See Edward McParland, ‘The Wide Street Commissioners’, Quarterly Bulletin of the Irish Georgian Society, 15, 1 (1972).

  42. See Andrew Kincaid, Postcolonial Dublin (Minneapolis, 2006).

  43. Edward McParland, ‘Strategy in the Planning of Dublin, 1750–1800’, in P. Butel and L. M. Cullen (eds.), Cities and Merchants: French and Irish Perspectives on Urban Development, 1500–1900 (Dublin, 1986).

  44. See Edel Sheridan-Quantz, ‘The Multi-Centred Metropolis: The Social Topography of Eighteenth-Century Dublin’, in Peter Clark and Raymond Gillespie (eds.), Two Capitals: London and Dublin, 1500–1840 (Oxford, 2001).

  45. See Edel Sheridan, ‘Designing the Capital City: Dublin, 1660–1810’, in Joseph Brady and Anngret Simms (eds.), Dublin through Space and Time (Dublin, 2001).

  46. James Malton, A Picturesque and Descriptive View of the City of Dublin (1799) (Dublin, 1980), p. ii.

  47. Jefferys (1810), pp. 55, 85.

  48. Quoted in Foster (1988), p. 186.

  49. Thomas Cromwell, Excursions Through Ireland (London, 1820), p. 71.

  50. John James McGregor, New Picture of Dublin (Dublin, 1821), pp. 75–6.

  51. See Murray Fraser, ‘Public Building and Colonial Policy in Dublin, 1760–1800’, Architectural History, 28 (1985), p. 111.

  52. Jefferys (1810), p. 82.

  53. J. Warburton, J. Whitelaw and K. Walsh, History of the City of Dublin from the Earliest Accounts to the Present Time, 2 vols. (London, 1818), vol. 2, p. 1081, quoted in Sheridan-Quantz (2001), p. 286.

  54. Quoted in J. T. Gilbert, A History of the City of Dublin (Dublin, 1859), vol. 2, pp. 57, 58.

  55. See Fraser (1985), p. 115.

  56. John Gamble, Sketches of History, Politics and Manners in Dublin and the North of Ireland in 1810 (London, 1826), p. 22.

  57. Fraser (1985), p. 117.

  58. Foster (1988), p. 280.

  59. John Bew, Castlereagh (London, 2011), pp. 119–20.

  60. Speech of the Rt. Hon. William Pitt in the British House of Commons on Thursday 31 January 1799 (London, 1799), p. 43.

  61. Quoted in Hague (2004), p. 435.

  62. Quoted in Bew (2011), pp. 132, 150.

  63. Edward Cooke, Pro and Con: Being an Impartial Abstract of the Principal Publications on the Subject of Legislative Union (Dublin, 1800), p. 6, quoted in Bartlett (2004), p. 88.

  64. Quoted in Bew (2011), p. 156.

  65. The Dublin Magazine, 1 (1812–13), p. 392.

  66. Gamble (1826), p. 64.

  67. McGregor (1821), p. viii.

  68. Sydney Owenson (Lady Morgan), Florence Macarthy (1818) (New York, 1979), vol. 1, p. 54.

  69. George Barnes, A Statistical Account of Ireland Formed on Historical Facts (London, 1811), p. 16.

  70. Andrew O’Brien, ‘The History of Nelson’s Pillar’, Dublin Historical Record, 60, 1 (2007).

  71. Warburton, Whitelaw and Walsh (1818), vol. 2, p. 1100.

  72. The Speech of the Rt. Hon. William Pitt in the British House of Commons on Thursday, 31 January 1799 (Dublin, 1799), p. 127, quoted in Paul Bew, Ireland: The Politics of Enmity 1789–2006 (Oxford, 2007), p. 54.

  73. Parliamentary History, 34 (London, 1815), p. 351.

  74. See Barry Crosbie, Irish Imperial Networks: Migration, Social Communication and Exchange in Nineteenth-Century India (Cambridge, 2012), p. 85.

  CHAPTER 4: CAPE TOWN

    1. Lady Anne Barnard to Henry Dundas (Viscount Melville), 10 July 1797, in A. M. Lewin Robinson (ed.), The Letters of Lady Anne Barnard to Henry Dundas from the Cape and Elsewhere, 1793–1803 (Cape Town, 1973), p. 37.

    2. Roger Knight, Britain Against Napoleon (London, 2013), p. 72.

    3. See ‘Lady Anne Barnard [née Lindsay]’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (Oxford, 2004).

    4. William J. Burchell, Travels in the Interior of Southern Africa (London, 1822), vol. 1, p. 1.

    5. Captain Robert Percival, An Account of the Cape of Good Hope (London, 1804), p. 103.

    6. The phrase belongs to historian Richard Elphick. See Leonard Thompson, A History of South Africa (London, 1990), p. 39.

    7. Anthony Trollope, South Africa (London, 1878), p. 81.

    8. See Vivian Bickford-Smith, ‘Creating a City of the Tourist Imagination’, Urban Studies, 46, 9 (2009).

    9. Quoted in the Observer, 9 October 2011.

  10. See Douglas A. Irwin, ‘Mercantilism as Strategic Trade Policy: The Anglo-Dutch Rivalry for the East India Trade’, Journal of Political Economy, 99, 6 (1991), p. 1300.

  11. Rear Admiral Fitzroy, The Weather Book: A Manual of Practical Meteorology (London, 1863), pp. 143–4.

  12. Burchell (1822), p. 4.

  13. See Nigel Worden, Elizabeth van Heyningen and Vivian Bickford-Smith, Cape Town: The Making of a City (Claremont, 1998), p. 12.

  14. Carolyn Hamilton, Bernard K. Mbenga and Robert Ross (eds.), The Cambridge History of South Africa, vol. 1 (Cambridge, 2010), p. 174. See also Nigel Worden (ed.), Cape Town: Between East and West (Auckland Park, 2012).

  15. John Stavorinus, Voyages to the East Indies (London, 1798), vol. 2, p. 55.

  16. George McCall Theal (ed.), Records of the Cape Colony (London, 1897–1905), vol. 1 (1897), p. 23.

  17. See Monica Wilson, ‘The Hunters and the Herders’, in Monica Wilson and Leonard Thompson (eds.), A History of South Africa to 1870 (London, 1982); Thompson (1990).

  18. Jemima Kindersley, Letters from the Island of Teneriffe, Brazil, the Cape of Good Hope, and the East Indies (London, 1777), letter dated February 1765 from Cape Town, quoted in C. R. Boxer, The Dutch Seaborne Empire (London, 1977), p. 245.

  19. Burchell (1822), p. 70.

  20. Percival (1804), p. 108.

  21. Kindersley (1777), p. 53.

  22. Anthony K. Millar, Plantagenet in South Africa: Lord Charles Somerset (Cape Town, 1965), p. 61.

  23. Burchell (1822), p. 71.

  24. Peter Quennell (ed.), The Memoirs of William Hickey (London, 1960), p. 224.

  25. Ibid., p. 225.

  26. Peter Kolben, The Present State of the Cape of Good Hope (London, 1731), vol. 1, pp. 351–2.

  27. Burchell (1822), p. 73.

  28. Boxer (1977), p. 263.

  29. John Barrow, An Account of Travels into the Interior of South Africa (London, 1801), pp. 45–6.

  30. Robert Semple, Walks and Sketches at the Cape of Good Hope (London, 1805), p. 18.

  31. Kolben (1731), vol. 1, p. 350.

  32. Percival (1804), p. 273.

  33. See ‘Dundas, Henry, First Viscount Melville’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (Oxford, 2004).

  34. Lord Holderness, secretary of state, dispatch to Mitchell, 1757, quoted in Paul M. Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of British Naval Mastery (London, 1976), p. 106.

  35. Two Views of British India: The Private Correspondence of Mr Dundas and Lord Wellesley, 1798–1801, ed. Edward Ingram (Bath, 1970), p. 206, quoted in Michael Duffy, ‘World-Wide War and British Expansion, 1793–1815’, in P. J. Marshall (ed.), The Oxford History of the British Empire, vol. 2: The Eighteenth Century (Oxford, 1998), p. 191.

  36. Quoted in Kennedy (1976), p. 129.

  37. W. Shrubsole, Plea in Favour of the Shipwrights Belonging to the Royal Dock Yards (Rochester, 1770).

  38. Parliamentary Register, vol. 14 (London, 1801), 25 March 1801, p. 577.

  39. Quoted in Sam Willis, In the Hour of Victory (London, 2013), p. 21.

  40. Theal (1897–1905), vol. 1, p. 10.

  41. Ibid., vol. 1, pp. 17, 22, 26.

  42. Quoted in L. C. F. Turner, ‘The Cape of Good Hope and the Anglo-French Conflict, 1797–1806’, Historical Studies, Australia and New Zealand 9, 36 (1961), p. 368.

  43. Percival (1804), p. 335.

  44. See Worden et al. (1998). />
  45. See Christopher Saunder and Iain R. Smith, ‘Southern Africa, 1795–1910’, in Andrew Porter (ed.), The Oxford History of the British Empire, vol. 3: The Nineteenth Century (Oxford, 1999).

  46. Theal (1897–1905), vol. 2 (1898), pp. 114.

  47. Ibid., vol. 2, p. 214; vol. 1, p. 17.

  48. Lewin Robinson (1973), p. 43.

  49. Ibid., p. 101.

  50. A. M. Lewin Robinson (ed.), The Cape Journals of Lady Anne Barnard, 1797–1798 (Cape Town, 1994), pp. 260, 265.

  51. Ibid., pp. 260, 265.

  52. Edward Ingram (ed.), Two Views of British India: The Private Correspondence of Mr Dundas and Lord Wellesley (Bath, 1970), pp. 41– 2, 305.

  53. Ibid., pp. 30, 94, 97.

  54. Turner (1961), pp. 371–2.

  55. Theal (1897–1905), vol. 5 (1899), pp. 267–8.

  56. Semple (1805), p. 26.

  57. Richard Barnard Fisher, The Importance of the Cape of Good Hope, as a Colony to Great Britain, Independently of the Advantages It Possesses as a Military and Naval Station, and the Key to Our Territorial Possessions in India (London, 1816), p. 26; Percival (1804), pp. 252, 256; Semple (1805), p. 33.

  58. Fisher (1816), p. 27; Semple (1805), p. 32.

  59. Stavorinus (1798), vol. 1, p. 565; Barrow (1801), p. 48; Percival (1804), p. 261; Lewin Robinson (1994), p. 266.

  60. Barrow (1801), pp. 49, 50; Kindersley (1777), p. 64.

  61. George Champion, The Journal of an American Missionary (Cape Town, 1968), p. 28, quoted in Vertrees Malherbe, ‘Christian-Muslim Marriage and Cohabitation: An Aspect of Identity and Family Formation in Nineteenth-Century Cape Town’, Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 36, 1 (2008), p. 6.

  62. John Campbell, Travels in South Africa, Undertaken at the Request of the Missionary Society (London, 1815), pp. 7, 495.

  63. Barrow (1801), p. 44.

  64. See Chris A. Bayly, Imperial Meridian: The British Empire and the World, 1780–1830 (London, 1989).

  65. Campbell (1815), p. 8.

  66. Percival (1804), p. 105.

  67. See Worden et al. (1998).

  68. South African Commercial Advertiser, 17 May 1826.

  69. See Graham Viney and Phillida Brooke Simons, The Cape of Good Hope (Houghton, 1994).