Defining Neighbors
Page 43
Ottoman Constitution, 25, 96
Ottoman Empire, 123; administrative units of, 16n6; and anti-Islamic polemic, 118; Arab Revolt against, 240; Ben-Gurion on, 121–22; and Capitulations, 22; censorship by, 118; and citizenship for Jews, 39; and dhimmī, 20; and ecnebī, 20; fall of, 12n16, 66, 238, 239; and ha-Ḥerut, 97; and al-Ḥizb al-waṭanī (National Party), 220; Islamic identity of, 122; Jerusalem under, 7, 15–17; Jewish immigration policy in, 23–24, 39–40; and Jewish land purchases in Palestine, 24n32, 165; and Jewish settlement of Palestine, 178; and Jews and military draft, 22–23, 31, 98, 107–8, 121, 122; and Jews and Tanzimat, 20; Jews as threat to, 165–66, 167; and M. R. al-Khalidi, 92; lands of former, 242; Law of Nationality of 1869, 20; and Middle Eastern Sephardim, 126; military service in, 22–23, 31, 98, 107–8, 121, 122; millet system in, 19–20, 22, 238–39; and Moyal, 207, 218, 219–20, 221; Palestine under, 15–17; and parliamentary system, 25; and poll tax, 23; press censorship by, 187; press freedoms in, 196; Red Slip policy of, 24, 85–86; and reforms of 1864, 16n6; religion in, 19–20; Sehayik on, 134n9; Spanish Jewish immigration to, 53; sultan of, 36, 165; and Tanzimat, 20–23, 24, 25; taxation in, 22, 23, 31; Turks in, 139; ha-Ẓevi’s criticism of, 118
Ottoman Parliament, 1, 4n4, 41, 42n13, 92, 96
Palestine, 18; ancient Jewish kingdoms in, 40, 51; Arab conquest of, 40; blended history of, 13; and Europe, 29; European Christians in, 99–100; and Herzl, 90; home for Jews in, 238, 241, 244; homeland for Jews other than, 182, 183; intellectual community and culture of, 135–36; Islamic conquest of, 124, 165; Israelites in, 172; Jerusalem in context of, 7; Jewish exploitation of population of, 76; Jewish historical link to, 50–54, 91, 92, 180, 226; Jewish settlement of, 173–75, 176, 178–79, 229; Jewish territorial projects outside of, 90; Jewish this-worldly possession of, 162; Jews’ desire to return to, 51–53, 54, 58–59, 60, 69, 70, 87, 173–74, 229; Jews’ desire to rule, 75, 162, 165–169, 173, 184, 223; and Yusuf Diyaʾal-Khalidi, 89; nationalisms in, 235; under Ottoman Empire, 15–17; and Ottoman Red Slip policy, 85–86; population of, 31–38; under Rome, 15; between Syria and Egypt, 26; as term, 18n11; and wealth of Jews, 87–89; and J. Zaydan, 143; Zionism as danger for, 90; Zionist colonies in, 87–88, 92. See also Mandate for Palestine
Palestine, Jewish immigration to, 187; after Spanish expulsion, 53–54; from Arabic-speaking lands, 188; as beneficial to Arabs, 128; and bribery, 193n37; from Egypt, 131–32, 138, 179; and M. R. al-Khalidi, 39–40, 41; mass nationalist, 39; and Nassar, 232; Ottoman policy on, 23–24, 39–40; from Russia, 193
Palestine Exploration Fund, 170
Palestine Liberation Organization, 62n89
Palestine National Council, 247; Declaration of Independence, 245n33
Palestine Office, 11
Palestine Order in Council, 238
Palestinian Arabic press. See Arabic press; al-Karmil; an-Nafīr
Palestinian Arab nationalism, 3, 7, 18, 35, 75, 235–37
Palestinian National Charter, 245n33, 247
Palestinian peasants, 125
Palestinians (Palestinian Arabs), 2, 148–49, 245–47; as Christians and Muslims distinguished from Jews, 236; and early opposition to Zionism, 39n2; and Hamas, 246; intellectuals among participating in broader Arab discourse, 135–36; and nationalism and national identity, 3, 7, 18, 35, 75, 235–37; origins of according to Ben-Zvi, 123–26; and parliamentary elections, 246; question about existence of, 1; as term, 35n76. See also Arabs; Christian Arabs; Christians; Israeli-Palestinian conflict; Muslim Arabs; Muslims
Pan-Islamism, 25
Pan-Ottomanism, 25
Pan-Turkism, 25
Paris Disputation of 1240, 208n86
Paris Peace Conference, 242
Paris Sanhedrin of 1807, 62
Paris system, 242–43
Paul the Apostle, 209
Penslar, Derek, 84n157, 88nn166, 167
People of the Book, 72, 224, 225, 226
Petah Tikva, 33
Petrie, W. M. Flinders, Researches in Sinai, 169–70
Pharisees, 88n167, 149
Philadelphia Conference of 1869, 62
Philo of Alexandria, 81, 209–10
Pinsker, Leon, Autoemancipation, 228n169
Pirkei avot (“Ethics of the Fathers”), 199, 200, 203–4, 205, 206, 207, 210, 212–13, 214–15
Pittsburgh Conference of 1885, 62
Pius X, 237n8
Plato, 209
Poʿalei Ẓiyon (Workers of Zion) Party, 96, 120, 123
ha-Poʿel ha-ẓaʿir, 117, 126–27
Poland, 243
polemic: antisemitic, 228; Arab, 202; against Islam, 118; and Islam, 164; Islam and anti-Jewish, 162; Islamic-Jewish, 43, 70; and M. R. al-Khalidi, 43, 48; and Moyal, 199, 202, 203, 206, 208, 209, 212, 220; Muslim-Christian, 73–74; Muslim-Jewish, 72–73
Powell, Eve Troutt, 28
Protestant missionaries, 171n126
Protestants, 33, 158, 159. See also Christians
Protocols of the Elders of Zion, 247
Prussia, 29
Ptolemy II Philadelphus, 212
qāḍī/quḍāh, 32
al-Qassam, ʿIzz ad-Din, 240
qawmiyya, 55n56
al-Quds, 16, 26, 50
Qurʾan, 18, 71, 133; afterlife and divine judgment in, 72–73; and Christianity, 73–74; and Jewish rule in Palestine, 167; and M. R. al-Khalidi, 235; and N. Malul, 224–25; and al-Manār, 151, 154, 161, 162; Muslim faithfulness to, 163; revelation in, 77, 78; and Rida, 161, 162, 163, 166, 168; and Salafis, 65
Rabbanites, 225
rabbis, 19, 66, 149; as forbidding Zionism, 60–64; and hahambaşi, 19, 36; and M. R. al-Khalidi, 60–63; and Mendelssohn, 60–63; and Moses, 79n141; and Moyal, 199; and Reform Jews, 62–63; and Talmud, 203
race, 235; and ʿAbboud, 236, 238; and Akçura, 25; and antisemitism, 85, 182; in Arabic intellectual journals, 9; and Arabic journals, 26–28; and Arabs, 13; and Ben-Zvi, 123, 124–25, 237; as category of interpretation, 3–7, 10; and Christian hatred of Jews, 106–7, 114; as common to Jews and Muslims, 106, 107, 114; and Darwinism, 26–28, 139; as distinction and source of intercommunal commonality, 243; and Egypt, 28, 29; and Egypt’s relationship to Sudan, 139; in European thought, 30, 139, 140, 146; and European Zionists, 30–31; in Hebrew Zionist press, 9; in al-Hilāl, 9, 28; and Israel, 246–47; Jews as, 31, 138, 139–43; as link between Jews and Arabs, 6, 133, 143–50, 240; and Makaryus, 140–41, 173; and N. Malul, 233; in al-Manār, 9; and Mandate for Palestine, 237–38, 239, 240, 241–45; in al-Muqtaṭaf, 9; and Nahḍa, 26; and nation, 31; and nationalism, 6–7, 13, 237; and Palestinians, 246–47; and Paris Peace Conference, 242; and post-Holocaust Jewish perspectives, 13; and postwar treaties, 242–43; Rida on, 153, 154; rights irrespective of, 241, 243, 244–45; and Russian antisemitism, 85; as source of difference and potential conflict, 243; and Syria, 29; as taboo subject, 13; and toleration vs. persecution of Jews, 159; as tool of inclusion or annexation, 237; Turkish, 25; and Turks in Ottoman Empire, 139; and Young Turk Revolution, 24–26; and J. Zaydan, 28, 141–43; and Zionism, 13, 94, 107, 139n26
Radler-Feldmann, Yehoshua, “Concerning Our Arab Question,” 93, 94
Red Slip policy. See Ottoman Empire
Reform Jews, 62–63, 66, 229
religion, 235; and ʿAbboud, 236, 238; in ha-Aḥdut, 101; and assimilation by western Jews, 87; and Ben-Gurion, 121–22; and Ben-Zvi, 125–26; as category of interpretation, 3–7, 10; and Christian missionaries, 30; and Christians’ hatred for Jews, 114–20, 121; essential sameness of all, 222, 224; and government, 165; in Hebrew Zionist press, 8–9; in ha-Ḥerut, 98–99, 100, 101–2, 103; and intercommunal commonality, 243; and Israeli-Palestinian conflict, 245–46; and Jewish-Arab racial link, 148; Jews as, 66, 89, 91, 138–39, 142, 155; and M. R. al-Khalidi, 8, 45, 80; and Kremer, 105–6; and N. Malul, 10, 222, 224–28, 233–34; and Mandate for Palestine, 237–40, 241–45; and millet system, 19–20, 238–39; and modernity, 5n6, 8n13; and morality, 224–25; and Moyal, 10, 199, 233; and nationalism, 6–
7, 13; and nationality, 138–39; in Ottoman Empire, 19–20; and Ottoman military draft, 22–23; and Palestinians, 245–46; Rida on, 153, 154, 165; rights irrespective of, 241, 243, 244–45; and socialist nationalist ideologues, 95; as source of difference and potential conflict, 243; as taboo subject, 13; and Tanzimat, 20–23; and toleration vs. persecution of Jews, 159; in ha-Ẓevi (ha-Or; Hashkafah), 99–102, 103; and Zionism, 94
Religious Communities Organization Ordinance, 238
Rida, Muhammad Rashid, 134–35, 148–49, 157, 159, 161; and antisemitism, 153–54, 156, 157; and Makaryus, 11, 177–78; and Qurʾan, 163, 166, 168; on religious toleration, 151–54; Shubuhāt an-naṣārā wa-ḥujaj al-islām, 74; and Torah, 161, 162, 163–64, 166, 169; and Zionism, 162, 165–69, 178. See also al-Manār (The Beacon)
Rire, Le, 180
Rishon Le-Zion, 33
rishon le-ẓiyon, 36
Rohling, August, Der Talmudjude, 202
Romaniot, Ashkenazim, Italians, 36
Rome, ancient, 15
Rosh Pina, 33
Rothschild, Alphonse de, 180
Rothschild family, 87, 154–57, 174–75, 183
Rumania, 143
Ruppin, Arthur, 191n28, 192
Russia, 29, 91, 92; antisemitism in, 70, 82–85, 173; de Hirsch’s negotiations of 1892 with, 91; Jewish immigration from, 193; Jews in, 82, 183; oppression of Jews in, 83, 143, 165; and representation of non-Muslims in Ottoman lands, 21
Russian Christians, 70
Russian Jews, 21, 193
Russian Revolution, 231
Russkoe znamia, 110
Ryad, Umar, 227n163
Sabbateans, 53, 70
Sadducees, 149
Safed, 33, 53, 97
Ṣahyūn (Zion), 49, 50
as-salaf aṣ-ṣāliḥ (worthy ancestors), 65
Salafis, 65
Samaria, 170
Samaritan Bible, 212
Samaritans, 124
as-Samawʾal, Silencing the Jews, 79
Samson, 170
Samuel bin Hofni, 149
Samuel the Prophet, 144
Sanhedrin, 213n103
Sarruf, Yaʿqub, 134
Ṣawt al-ʿuthmāniyya (The Voice of Ottomanism), 197, 218
Schwartz, Shuly Rubin, 42n12
Second Aliyah, 34, 95, 96, 101, 120, 123, 186
Second Aliyah Zionists, 125
sectarianism, 22
secularism, 8, 57; and Ben-Yehuda, 1; in ha-Ḥerut, 99; and Israel, 246; and Israeli-Palestinian conflict, 245–46; and M. R. al-Khalidi, 1, 44; and Tanzimat, 21
secularization theory, 13
sefaradi, 36
Sehayik, Shaʾul, 134n9
Selim II, 22n23
Semites, 6, 7, 140–41
Semitic nations, 148
Sephardim, 34, 36, 95, 96, 103, 121, 185; and Agudat ha-Magen, 194; and Arabic, 9, 188–89, 192; and ascama, 67; and Ashkenazim, 100, 195; attitude toward Arabs, 126–30; and creation of Arabic newspaper, 197–98; and ha-Ḥerut, 97–98; and Islamic religious tolerance, 118–20; and M. R. al-Khalidi, 62; and Zionists’ self-conceptions, 94. See also Jews
sex, 245n33
shaʿb, 174, 176n146, 218
Shāfiʿī madhhab (jurisprudential school), 32
Ash-Shahrastani, Abu al-Fath Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Karim, 71; Kitāb al-milal wa-n-niḥal, 72, 225, 226, 227
El Shakry, Omnia, 28
sharīʿa, 61n80
sharīʿa (Islamic religious) courts, 21
Sharon, Ariel, 246
shaykh al-islām, 32, 44
shemaʿ, 214
Shiites, 25, 32
ha-Shiloaḥ, 231, 233
Shimon bar Yoḥai, 216
ha-Shomer, 123
Simon the Maccabee, 170
Sinai Peninsula, 88
Sixtus V, 158
Smilansky, Moshe, 187–88
Smith, A. D., 8n13
Smolenskin, Peretz, 56n63
Social Darwinism, 139
socialism, 34, 95, 96, 127
Socialist Zionists, 120–26
Society for the Promotion of Christianity among the Jews (SPCJ), 117
Solomon, 49, 168, 172
South African apartheid, 247
Spain, 29; expulsion of Jews from, 53, 150; oppression of Jews in, 165; toleration of Jews in, 158
Spanish Inquisition, 118, 119, 230
State of Israel, 34, 96
Stillman, Norman A., 23n27
Suares, Felix, 146, 148, 176–77
Sudan, 28
Suez, 131
Sunna, 65
Sunni Muslims, 1, 25, 213; estimates of population of, 32; and M. R. al-Khalidi, 63, 64; and millet system, 22
Supreme Muslim Council (al-Majlis al-islāmī al-aʿlā), 239
Syria, 139, 144, 242; as context of Jerusalem, 7; and intellectual and cultural orbit of, 26; Islamic conquest of, 165; Jews in, 156; Ottoman vilayet of, 16, 17; and race, 29
Syrian Catholics, 33
Syrian Orthodox, 33
Syrian press, 194
Syrian Protestant College (SPC), 26–27, 171n126
Syrians, 124, 148–49
taʿaṣṣub, 84
At-Tabari, Muhammad ibn Jarir, 152
taḥrīf, 211–13
Talmud, 60, 64, 77, 79n141; and antisemitic polemic, 228; and Arab polemic, 202; Christian attacks on ethics of, 206; and Christianity, 205–10; and hope of return to Holy Land, 70; and human sacrifice, 201, 202, 223, 224; and Islam, 210–16; and M. R. al-Khalidi, 46, 52; and Moyal, 11, 208; as privileging Jews over non-Jews, 204; and ritual murder, 201–3; and J. Zaydan, 11, 203. See also Moyal, Shimon: at-Talmūd
Tamari, Salim, 37
Tanzimat (Reorganizations of 1839–1876), 20–23, 24, 25
at-tashabbuh, 55n57
Tauber, Eliezer, 217n124
Tavernier, Eugene, 147
Taylor, Charles, 57
Temple, 78, 217; destruction of, 179–80, 225; and M. R. al-Khalidi, 52; Second, 218; of Solomon, 166
Temple Mount, 52n52, 240, 246
Temple of Onias, 208, 210
Tiberias, 33, 97
Tishʿah be-Av, 240
Titus, 180, 225, 229
Torah, 60, 79n141; Babylonian terms in, 164; as corrupted, 164, 166; divinity and antiquity of, 77–80; and Ezra the Scribe, 78, 79; Jews as unfaithful to, 161, 163–64; and M. R. al-Khalidi, 71, 161–62, 235; and Last Day, 162; Makaryus on, 173; and N. Malul, 225; marginal notes in, 164; and Moyal, 206, 206n78, 209; and Muhammad, 164; and Rida, 161, 162, 163–64, 166, 169; and ritual murder, 160; and Septuagint, 212. See also Bible, Hebrew
Torquemada, Tomás de, 118
Tosefta, 204
translation, 185–86, 232; of antisemitic works, 228–29; and antisemitism, 233; of antitalmudic texts, 202; of anti-Zionist Arabic press, 191, 192; and attempt to influence Arabic press, 187; and books in Arabic about Judaism, 198; and M. R. al-Khalidi, 46, 48, 68–69; and Nassar, 11; and theories of Venuti, 68–69
Treaty of Sevres, 242, 243
Treaty of Trianon, 242–43
Tripoli, 43, 202
tritheism, 74
Triwaks, A.B.G., “Jesus of Nazareth Never Existed,” 115–16
Türk, 25
Turkey, 120–21, 242, 243
Turkish nationalism, 25
Turks, 139
ʿUmar, 124
Umayyads, 156, 230, 231
umma/umam, 63, 174
United Nations General Assembly: Resolution 181, 245n33; Resolution 3379, 246–47
Urabi movement, 220
urban population, 33, 123, 125
Ūrshalīm, 50. See also Jerusalem
van den Berg, Emmanuel, 72
Vatican, 33
Venuti, Lawrence, 68–69
Waardenburg, Jacques, 74
Wadi Hawarith, 88
waqf (pl. awqāf), 239
Weitz, Eric, 242
Weizmann, Chaim, 240
West Bank, 16
Wolski, Kalixt de, La Russie Juive,
228
World Zionist Organization, 172–73
yahūd awlād al-ʿarab, 37
Yathrib (Madina), 144
Yehoshuʿa, Yaʿqub, 193
Yehuda ha-Nasi, 203
Yemen, 144
Yemenite Jews, 114
Yishuv, 34, 35, 96
Yom Kippur, 240
Young Turk Revolution, 23, 24–26, 96, 98, 101, 102, 122, 187; and Jews, 165; and press freedoms, 196; Sehayik on, 134n9
Yusuf, Saadiah bin (Saadiah Gaon), 149
Yuval, Israel, 4n5
Zakka, Iliya, 192–93
Zaydan, Emile, 139, 141; “The Jews and the War,” 131–32, 179–84
Zaydan, Jurji (George), 11, 131, 134, 157, 174, 182; “The Jews in the Lands of the Arabs,” 143–44; and N. Malul, 227n163; and Moyal, 203, 205, 210; Ṭabaqāt al-umam aw as-salā ʾil al-bashariy ya, 28, 141–43
ha-Ẓevi (ha-Or; Hashkafah), 96, 129; “The Arabic Theater,” 112–13; Arab-like Jew in, 114; Arabs in, 102–3; “The Arabs in Jaffa,” 102; and Ben-Yehuda interview with al-Khalidi, 39; borders of identity in, 111–12; Christian Arabs in, 108–9;“A Christian Muslim Woman,” 112; Christians as non-Arabs in, 107–8; Christians in, 99–100; criticism of Ottoman Empire by, 118; and Karaites, 112–13; “Killed,” 100–101; and Kremer, 104n37, 105; Muslim Arabs in, 108; Muslims as enemies of Christians in, 109–11; Muslims in, 100–101; “Rabbi for the Jews and Christian Devotee,” 118; religion in, 99–102, 103; and Yemenite Jews, 114
Zikhron Yaʿakov, 33
Zion, 49, 75, 80
Zionism: and ʿAbboud, 236–37; apologetics for (see apologetics); in Arabic journals, 9, 133; Arabic press opposition to, 9, 106, 127–28, 129, 187, 190, 192, 231–33, 234; and Arab identity and Palestinian nationalism, 75; and Bible, 76, 132; and Christian Arabs, 106, 115; as danger for Palestine, 90; English rabbinic decree against, 90; and Europe, 29; and Faisal Hussein, 240; and fellahin, 125; as form of racism, 247; as Great Danger, 185; and ha-Ḥerut, 97, 128–30; and Hirsch, 91; and ijmāʿ (consensus), 64; and Islamic tolerance, 115; and Italian Jews, 86; Jewish opponents of, 60–64, 90–91; and Jewish sovereignty, 128–29; and M. R. al-Khalidi, 7–8, 12, 42, 43, 45–92, 162, 166; and Yusuf Diyaʾal-Khalidi, 50–51, 54, 89; lack of Jewish consensus on, 66; language as contested in, 186; and Makaryus, 175–78, 179; and N. Malul, 222, 229, 231; and Mendelssohn, 61; money as central to, 87–89; and Moyal, 199, 217–18; and al-Muqtaṭaf, 178–79; and Muslim Arabs, 106; and Nassar, 11, 90, 185, 186, 232; and newspapers, 87; as official organization, 35n74; and Ottoman limits on Jewish migration, 24n32; and Palestinian National Charter, 247; and Pius X, 237n8; rabbis as forbidding, 60–64; and race, 139n26; and racism, 13, 247; and Reform movement, 229; and religion, 94; and Rida, 162, 165–69, 178; rise of, 18; as secular nationalist movement, 8; Sehayik on, 134n9; as separatist movement, 128–29; translated into Arabic, 69; and UN Resolution 3379, 247; and views of non-Jews, 93–130; and Zakka, 192–93; and E. Zaydan, 132. See also anti-Zionism; Jewish nationalism; nationalism