The Sports Gene: Inside the Science of Extraordinary Athletic Performance
Page 37
ApoE4 gene and, 254–57
in boxers and football players, 253–54
Brand, Elton, 134
Braverman, Eric, 253
British Journal of Sports Medicine, 22, 59, 71
brittle bone disease, 258
Brown, Jeff, 71–72
bully whippets, 104
Cameron, Mike, 3
Campbell-Brown, Veronica, 161–62, 165
Campitelli, Guillermo, 21–22, 51
Camplin, Alisa, 50
Carter, Jimmy, 218
Carter, Xavier, 174
catching skills, and depth perception, 43–44
cattle raiding theory, 190–91
Chase, William G., 9–10
Chelimo, Richard, 207
chess, 8–10
Campitelli and Gobet’s study of, 21–23, 51
chunking theory and, 9–10
de Groot’s experiments and, 8–9
range of hours to achieve expertise, 21–23
childhood, and altitude, 215
chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE), 255
chunking theory, 9–10, 11–12, 14
Clayton, Jerry, 30
Coimbra, Erika, 71
COL1A1 gene, 257–58
COL5A1 gene, 257–58
Colby, Brandon, 255
collagen, 257
collagen genes (COL1A1 and COL5A1), 257–58
Collier, Jason, 246
Collins, Malcolm, 258
Colvin, Geoff, 19
COMT gene and variants, 261–63
cone density, and visual acuity, 39
congenital adrenal hyperplasia, 62
contrast sensitivity, 43
Cooper, Juin, 177
Cooper, Patrick, 175–85
Cowgill, Libby, 124–25
Cowherd, Colin, 130, 131
CREB1 gene, 85
cricket, and occlusion test, 11–12
cross-sectional study, 20
Cudjoe, Captain, 164, 165, 167
Cunego, Damiano, 280–81
Curry, Eddy, 250–51
CYP2E1 gene, 146–47
Daniels, Jack, 97–98
Danish athletes, muscle fiber study of, 111–13
Darwin, Charles, 64, 230–31, 289
database of body movements, 12–13, 284–85
da Vinci, Leonardo, 115, 134
Davis, Anthony, 134–35
Dean, Herb, 263
death, and hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM), 242–51
deCODE Genetics, 149
de Groot, Adriaan, 8–9
de la Chapelle, Albert, 57–58, 275–76, 280
De la Chapelle syndrome, 57–58
de La Hoya, Oscar, 241
deliberate practice framework. See 10,000 hours to expertise rule
depression, 239
depth perception, 43–44
distal weight, 197
Dix, Walter, 174
dog breeding
sled dogs (See sled dogs)
whippets, 103–4, 231
Dong Fangxiao, 68
dopamine, 234, 238, 239–40, 261–62
doping
of female athletes, 69
gene-doping, 106
T/E ratio testing, genes conferring immunity to, 148
DRD4 gene, 7R version of, 239, 240
Dreger, Alice, 69
Duchenne muscular dystrophy, 152–53
Duguay, Ron, 253, 256
Durandt, Justin, 47–48, 52, 173
Easteal, Simon, 153
East Germany, and systematic doping by female athletes, 69
Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, 258
Elferink-Gemser, Marije, 46–47
El Guerrouj, Hicham, 121
Elo, Arpad, 21
enlarged heart, and HCM, 250
EPAS1 gene, 212
EPO (hormone), 214, 274, 276–77
EPOR gene (erythropoietin receptor gene), 276–77
Mäntyranta family EPOR mutation, 273–81
Epstein, David, 86–89
Ericsson, K. Anders, 16–17, 19, 22, 37, 284
erythropoietin (EPO), 214, 274, 276–77
Eskimo body type, 199
Estil, Frode, 280–81
Ethiopia
Amhara, 212–13
Oromo (See Oromo runners)
European Journal of Applied Physiology, 220
expert athletic performance
body types and (See body types)
gene-free model of (See gene-free model of expertise)
genetics and (See genes/genetics)
hardware and software paradigm (See hardware and software paradigm)
height and (See height)
of Jamaican sprinters (See Jamaican sprinters)
of Kalenjin runners (See Kalenjin runners)
malaria and muscle fiber theory (See malaria and muscle fiber theory)
male/female differences in (See male/female differences in athletic performance)
muscles and (See muscles)
nature versus nurture and, 34–37, 282–90
practice and (See practice)
skill acquisition and, 34–37
technological enhancements and, 115
10,000 hours to expertise rule (See 10,000 hours to expertise rule)
trainability and (See trainability)
Extra Mile, The (Reed), 235
eye movement tracking, 10–11, 13
Farrow, Damian, 91
fast-twitch muscle fibers
and fat burning capacity, 123
malaria and muscle fiber theory (See malaria and muscle fiber theory)
muscle growth potential and, 109–13
sprinting and, 173
fat, 122–23
Fetus into Man (Tanner), 126, 136
field hockey, and occlusion test, 7–8
Finch, Jennie, 1–4, 12–13
“The Fire Inside: Bulls center Joakim Noah . . .” (Sports Illustrated article), 283
Flanagan, Shalane, 215–16
“flicker,” of pitches, 42
Foé, Marc-Vivien, 246
Folland, Jonathan P., 286–87
follistatin, 105
football, and brain trauma, 254–55
Fosbury, Dick, 119
Foster, Carl, 157
founder mutations, 275–76
fractures, 258
Francis, Stephen, 171
Frank, Robert H., 114
Fraser-Pryce, Shelly-Ann, 171–72
FTO gene, 122–23
Fuller, Charles, 170
Garland, Theodore, 233–34
Garrels, Dee, 102
Gathers, Hank, 250
Gavin, Myron, 226
Gayle, Branford, 170–71
GDF-8 gene (myostatin gene), 101–4, 106–7
GEAR study, 84, 108
Geary, David C., 63–64, 66, 73
Gebrselassie, Haile, 237
gene-doping, 106
gene-free model of expertise, 1–17
brain automation and, 13–14
chunking theory and, 9–10, 11–12, 14
database of body movements and, 12–13
de Groot’s chess experiments and, 8–9
eye movement tracking and, 10–11, 13
occlusion test and, 6–8, 11–12
practice and (See practice)
simple reaction time and, 4–5, 6
10,000 hours to expertise rule (See 10,000 hours to expertise rule)
Genel, Myron, 58, 70
general athleticism
Australian Institute of
Sports (AIS) skeleton experiment and, 48–50
tennis skill acquisition and, 44–46
genes/genetics, 53–55, 82–85. See also specific genes
ApoE gene and variants, 253–57
body weight, effect on, 122–23
collagen genes (COL1A1 and COL5A1), 257–58
CREB1 gene, 85
hardware and software paradigm (See hardware and software paradigm)
height and, 136–38
human genome, sequencing of, 82–83
injuries and (See injuries)
Jamaican sprinters, genetic studies of, 166–69
Kalenjin runners and, 195–99
malaria and muscle fiber theory (See malaria and muscle fiber theory)
male/female differences (See male/female differences in athletic performance)
Mäntyranta family EPOR mutation and, 273–81
muscles and, 101–9
pain and (See pain)
personalized medicine and, 84–85
race and genetic diversity (See race, and genetic diversity)
RUNX1 gene, 83–84
SRY gene, 61, 71, 74
testing (See genetic testing)
trainability and, 83–85
voluntary physical activity and, 238–41
work ethic, breeding for (See work ethic, breeding for)
genetic drift, 147
Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act of 2008 (GINA), 251
Genetic Technologies, 156
genetic testing
for ApoE4 gene, 255–57
collagen gene testing, 258
for HCM, 248–51
“injury gene” testing, 258–59
REVEAL Study of reactions to results of ApoE testing, 257
sex testing, 56–59, 69–70
Genghis Khan, 67
geographic ancestry, DNA identification of, 149
geography and limb-length differences, 140–41, 175
GIANT Consortium study, 122–23
Giles, Brian, 3
Gknowmix, 258
Gladwell, Malcolm, 19, 22, 28, 131
Glaz, Dan, 242–43
Gleaner, The, 176
Gledhill, Norman, 90–91
Gluppe, George S., 90
Gobet, Fernand, 21–22, 23, 51
Goldis, Al, 43
Goldman, David, 262–63, 265
golf experiment, of McLaughlin, 18–20
gorillas, 65–66
Graf, Steffi, 46
Greely, Hank, 286
Green, Robert C., 257
Gretzky, Wayne, 240
Grimsley, John, 254–55
Grimsley, Virginia, 254–55
Groningen talent studies, 46–48, 173
Gulbin, Jason, 48–49, 54
Hakulinen, Veikko, 273
Hall, Ryan, 216
hardware and software paradigm, 38–55
depth perception and ability to learn catching skills, 43–44
deterministic versus predispositional view of genes, 53–55
early childhood specialization and, 51–53
skeleton experiment, and general athleticism, 48–50
speed and, 46–48
tennis skill acquisition, impact of general athleticism on, 44–46
visual acuity of baseball players and, 38–43
Harper, Joanna, 72–73
Hayes, Chuck, 135
HCM. See hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM)
Hebb, D. O., 264
height, 128–34, 136–38
bell curve of, 130–31
genetics and, 136–38
identical twin studies and, 136, 137
increase in twentieth century in, 131
percentage of seven-footers in NBA, 131–33
threshold hypothesis of, 131–32
hemoglobin
levels
as adaptation to malaria, 180–82
in African Americans, 178–79
Mäntyranta family EPOR mutation and, 273–81
oxygen saturation of, 211
HERITAGE Family Study, 79–86, 290
Hernandez, Keith, 42
Herrion, Thomas, 246
HEXA gene, 146
high jump, 23–33
Achilles tendon, role of, 32–33
Holm, Stefan and, 23–29, 31–32
Thomas, Donald and, 29–31
Hoar, Melissa, 49
Holliday, Trindon, 174
Holm, Johnny, 25, 27, 28, 32
Holm, Stefan, 23–29, 31–32, 237
Holway, Francis, 123–24, 125–26
human genome, sequencing of, 82–83
Human Genome Project, 84
Hunter, Gary, 32–33
Huson, Heather, 232
hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM), 242–51, 285–86
autosomal dominant heredity of, 246–47
enlarged heart as sign of, 250
gene mutations identified as causing, 247–48
prevalence in U.S. population, 245
testing for, 248–51
“Ice Novice to Winter Olympian in 14 months” (Bullock et al.), 49
identical twin studies
and height, 136, 137
and voluntary physical activity, 238–39
Iditarod, 223–24, 228, 229–30
IGF-1, 105–6
IGF-1Ea gene, 109
injuries, 254–59
brain trauma, and ApoE4 gene, 254–57
collagen genes and, 257–58
tendon and ligament injuries, 257–59
intersex conditions, in Olympics, 70–72
iron supplements, and severe malaria, 181–82
Ishikawa, Masaki, 32, 33
Jackson, Colin, 167
Jamaican sprinters, 158–74
genetic studies of, 166–69
leg-length of, 175
muscle fiber and, 173
Pitsiladis’ study of, 158–69
warrior-slave theory of, 163–66
youth track programs and, 169–74
James, LeBron, 130, 134
Jamnik, Veronica, 90–91
Japanese junior athletes, study of, 98–99
Jobs, Steve, 285
Johnson, Calvin, 173
Johnson, Glen, 256
Johnson, Jack, 176
Johnson, Michael, 166
Johnson, Ted, 256–57
Jones, Andrew M., 221
Jones, Edward, 141
Jones, Marion, 171
Jordan, Barry, 255–56, 257
Jordan, Michael, 51, 130, 132, 283
Journal of Applied Physiology, 84, 179
Journal of the National Medical Association, 178
Juantorena, Alberto, 96
Juvonen, Eeva, 275
Kalenjin runners, 186–99
achievements of, 191–94
altitude and, 210, 213, 215
body type and, 196–99
cattle raiding and, 190–91
distal weight of, 197
genetic studies of, 195–99
KenSAP program and, 186–88, 193–94
running economy and, 197–98
socioeconomic factors and, 207–10
Karl, Coby, 139
Karros, Eric, 39
Kastor, Deena, 214
Keflezighi, Meb, 95–96, 214
Kelly, James P., 256
Kemp, Justin, 91
KenSAP (Kenya Scholar-Athlete Project), 186–88, 193–94
Kenyan runners, 186–99, 201–3
Kalenjin runners (See Kalenjin runners)
KenSAP program and, 186–88, 193–94
socioeconomic factors and, 207–10
statistical projections of Kenyan runners’ performance, 201–2
training of, 204–7
Kidd, Judith, 146
Kidd, Kenneth, 142–47, 150, 151, 183, 283
Kimutai, Japhet, 193
Kinuthia, Ibrahim, 206
Kipketer, Wilson, 193, 209
Kiplagat, Evans, 204–5
Kipnis, Jason, 41
Kipnis, Mark, 41
Kiprotich, Stephen, 191
Kiprugut, Wilson, 189
Kiptanui, Moses, 206, 209
Kirschen, David G., 41, 43
Klawans, Harold, 51
Kogut, Eileen, 246, 247, 248–49
Kogut, Joe, 246
Kogut, Mark, 246
Korir, Amos, 191–92
Kosgei, Evans, 194
Kosgei, Peter, 194
Krieger, Heidi (Andreas), 69
Laby, Daniel M., 41, 43
lactose tolerance, 147–48
Larmer, Brook, 288
Larsen, Bob, 214
Larsen, Henrik, 198
Lasorda, Tommy, 39–40
“Late Specialization: The Key to Success in Centimeters, Grams or Seconds (cgs) Sports,” 52
Latimer, Bruce, 65
Lee, Se-Jin, 101–3, 104–5
left-handedness, 64–65
Le Gallais, Daniel, 183–84
leg-length. See limb-length
Lewis, Carl, 115
Lieberman, Dan, 74
ligament injuries, 257–59
Lightfoot, Tim, 239–40
limb-length
arm span, of NBA basketball players, 134–35
geographic differences and, 140–41, 175
of Jamaican sprinters, 175
of Kalenjin runners, 196–99
racial differences and, 138–40
Lohr, Lane, 29, 30
Lomong, Lopez, 201
longitudinal study, 20
Lost Boys, 200–1
Mach, Abraham, 200–1
Mackey, Dick, 225–26
Mackey, Kathie, 226
Mackey, Lance, 223–29, 232
Mackey, Tonya, 225, 227, 229
Making of Me, The (BBC program), 167
malaria and muscle fiber theory, 175–85
fast-twitch muscle fiber increase and, 175–76, 180, 182–84
iron supplements, and severe malaria, 181–82
low hemoglobin
as adaptation to malaria, 180–82
in African Americans, 178–79
sickle-cell trait and, 177–81
Male, Female: The Evolution of Human Sex Differences (Geary), 64
male/female differences in athletic performance, 56–74
effect of male hormones in females, 69
larger number of female than male ancestors and, 66–67
Martínez-Patiño, female status of, 56–59
papers suggesting women will outrun men, 59–60
physical differences between sexes, 64–65