God's War: A New History of the Crusades

by Tyerman, Christopher

  Notes

  The following abbreviations are used in the notes.

  MGH

  Monumenta Germaniae Historica (Hanover etc. 1826ff.)

  MGHS

  Monumenta Germaniae Historica Scriptores, ed. G. H. Pertz et al. (Hanover 1826ff.)

  MGH SS

  MGH Scriptores in Folio et Quarto (Hanover etc. 1826–1934)

  PL

  Patrologia cursus completus. Series Latina, ed. J. P. Migne (Paris 1844–64)

  RHC

  Recueil des historiens des croisades (Paris 1844–1906)

  RHC Arm.

  RHC Documents arméniens (Paris 1869–1906)

  RHC Occ.

  RHC Documents occidentaux (Paris 1844–95)

  RHC Or.

  Documents orientaux (Paris 1872–1906)

  RHGF

  Recueil des historiens des Gaules et de la France (Paris 1738–1876)

  1: The Origins of Christian Holy War

  1. Recueil des chartes de l’abbaye de Cluny, ed. A. Bruel, v (Paris 1894), 51–3, no. 3703; Cartulaire de l’abbaye de Saint-Victor de Marseille, ed. M. Guérard (Paris 1857), i, 167–8, no. 143.

  2. H. Hagenmeyer, Die Kreuzzugsbriefe aus den Jahren 1088–1100 (Innsbruck 1902), pp. 138–40, 141–2, 144, 146–9, 150, 151, 157, 160, 162; and pp. 136–7 for Urban’s letter to the Flemish, J. and L. Riley-Smith, The Crusades: Idea and Reality (London 1981), p. 38.

  3. De expugnatione Lyxbonensi, ed. C. W. David (New York 1936; reprint 1976), p. 81, as part of a comprehensive justification for holy war put in the mouth of the bishop of Oporto; for the identity of the author, H. Livermore, ‘“The Conquest of Lisbon” and its Author’, Portuguese Studies, 6 (1990), 1–16.

  4. From De laude novae militiae, Sancti Bernardi Opera, ed. J. Leclercq et al. (Rome 1963), pp. 214–15; J. and L. Riley-Smith, Crusades, p. 102.

  5. S. Runciman, A History of the Crusades (Cambridge 1951–4), iii, 480.

  6. Raymond of Aguilers, Historia Francorum qui ceperunt Iherusalem, RHC Occ., iii, 300, trans. J. H. and L. L. Hill (Philadelphia 1968), p. 128; for biblical citations P. Alphandéry, ‘Les Citations biblique chez les historiens de la première croisade’, Revue de l’histoire des religions, 99 (1929), 139–57, esp. p. 154, note 4; cf. Hagenmeyer, Kreuzzugsbriefe, pp. 153–5.

  7. Die Traditionsbücher des Benediktinerstiftes Güttweig, ed. A. Fuchs (Vienna and Leipzig 1931), Fontes rerum Austriacum, lxix, no. 55.

  8. For a summary, F. H. Russell, The Just War in the Middle Ages (Cambridge 1977), pp. 1–39.

  9. St Augustine, City of God, bk XIX, c. 7; cf. bk I, c. 21, trans. H. Bettenson (London 1984), pp. 32, 862.

  10. C. Erdmann, The Origin of the Idea of the Crusade, trans. M. W. Baldwin and W. Goffart (Princeton 1977), p. 19.

  11. Bede, Ecclesiastical History of the English People, ed. B. Colgrave and R. A. B. Mynors (Oxford 1969), pp. 214–15, 231, 240–43, 251.

  12. A. Bruckner and R. Marichal, Chartae Latinae antiquores, xii (Zurich 1987), 74, no. 543; P. D. King, Charlemagne: Translated Sources (Kendal 1987), pp. 223, 309–10; Einhard, Vita Caroli magni imperatoris, ed. L. Halphen (Paris 1981), pp. 22–8, trans. L. Thorpe as Life of Charlemagne (London 1969), pp. 61–4; M. McCormick, ‘The Liturgy of War in the Early Middle Ages’, Viator, 15 (1984), 1–23.

  13. King, Charlemagne, pp. 78, 112; cf. Walafrid Strabo c.840/2 for St Martin’s cappa, De Exordiis et Incrementis, MGH, Capitularia, ii (Hanover 1890), 515; and Notker the Stammerer, Two Lives of Charlemagne, trans. L. Thorpe (London 1969), p. 96.

  14. P. Godman, Poetry of the Carolingian Renaissance (Oxford 1985), pp. 189, 255, 276–7; cf. K. Leyser, ‘Early Medieval Canon Law and the Beginnings of Knighthood’, Communications and Power in Medieval Europe, i, ed. T. Reuter (Woodbridge 1994); J. Nelson, ‘Ninth Century Knighthood; the Evidence of Nithard’, Studies in Medieval History Presented to R. A. Brown, ed. C. Harper-Bill et al. (Woodbridge 1989).

  15. Godman, Poetry, pp. 128–9, 300–301, 302–3.

  16. MGH, Epistolarum, v (Berlin 1898), p. 601 s.a. 853; vii (Berlin 1912), pp. 126–7, no. 150; Erdmann, Origin, p. 27.

  17. Annales Fuldenses, ed. F. Kurze, MGH SS (Hanover 1891), p. 120, a. 891; C. J. Tyerman, England and the Crusades 1095–1588 (Chicago 1988), p. 10 and note 4 for Alfred.

  18. Abbo of St Germain, De bello Parisiaco, ed. G. H. Pertz, MGH SS (Hanover 1871), pp. 9–10, bk I, ll. 108–10; trans. Godman, Poetry, p. 313; for the Benedict story, Adelarius, Miraculi S. Benedicti, ed. O. Holder-Egger, MGH SS, xv–i (Hanover 1887), 499–500.

  19. The Dream of the Rood, ed. B. Dickins and A. S. C. Ross (London 1954), pp. 20–35.

  20. G. R. Murphy, The Saxon Saviour (New York/Oxford 1989), esp. pp. 6, 19–20, 58, 62, 65, 70, 71 et seq., 98, 99, 102–3, 105, 106, 109–10, 113.

  21. English Historical Documents, i, ed. D. Whitelock (London 1955), 293–7.

  22. La Chanson d’Antioche, ed. S. Duparc-Quioc (Paris 1977–8), i, 25–8 for passage; extracts J. and L. Riley-Smith, Crusades, pp. 72–3.

  23. Aelfric, Lives of the Saints, ed. W. W. Skeat, Early English Text Society (London 1890), ii, ll. 688–704; cf. 966 foundation charter of King Edgar for New Minster, Winchester, quoted in R. W. Southern, Western Church and Society in the Middle Ages (London 1970), pp. 224–5 and similar views of the emperor, Louis the Pious, in 817, MGH, Capitularia, i, 349–51.

  24. Aelfric, Saints, ii, 66–143, 324–5; Maccabees ll. 681–2 for quotation; Abbo of Fleury, Passio Sancti Eadmundi, in Carolla Sancti Edmundi: the Garland of St Edmund King and Martyr, ed. and trans. Lord F. Hervey (London 1907), esp. pp. 20, 26, 30, 32.

  25. P. Rousset, ‘L’idéal chevaleresque dans deux Vitae clunisienne’, Etudes de civilisation médiévale, Mélanges offerts à E. R. Labande (Poitiers 1974), pp. 623–33; PL, 133, esp. cols. 647–8.

  26. Ralph Glaber, Historarium Libri Quinti, ed. J. France (Oxford 1989), p. 61.

  27. H. E. J. Cowdrey, ‘The Peace and Truce of God in the Eleventh Century’, Past and Present, xlvi (1970), 53 and, in general, 42–67; cf. a contrary perspective based on evidence from the Limousin, M. G. Bull, Knightly Piety and the Lay Response to the First Crusade (Oxford 1993).

  28. The Penitentiary of Ermenfrid bishop of Sitten is translated by D. C. Douglas, English Historical Documents, ii (London 1963), 606–7; for Burchard of Worms, Decretum Libri XX, PL, cxl, esp. bk VI, De Homicidiis, e.g. chap. 23; cf. J. Gilchrist, ‘The Erdmann Thesis and the Canon Law’, Crusade and Settlement, ed. P. Edbury (Cardiff 1985), pp. 3–45.

  29. Bonizo of Sutri, Liber de Vita Christiana, ed. E. Perels (Berlin 1930), esp. bk II, cc. 3, 43; bk III, c. 89; bk VII, c. 28; bk X, c. 79, pp. 35, 56, 101, 248–9, 336; cf. H. E. J. Cowdrey, ‘Pope Gregory VII and the Bearing of Arms’, Montjoie: Studies in Crusade History in Honour of H. E. Mayer, ed. B. Kedar, J. Riley-Smith, R. Hiestand (Aldershot 1997), pp. 21–35; I. S. Robinson, ‘Gregory VII and the Soldiers of Christ’, History, lviii (1973), 161–92.

  30. Gregory VII to people of the archdiocese of Ravenna, 11 Dec. 1080, trans. E. Emerton, The Correspondence of Pope Gregory VII (New York 1969), p. 165.

  31. Benzo of Alba, Ad Heinricum IV. imperatorem, ed. H. Seyffert (Hanover 1996), pp. 240, 242, 248 (‘Cornefredus’), 300 (‘Grugnefredus’).

  32. Orderic Vitalis, The Ecclesiastical History, ed. M. ChIbnall (Oxford 1969–80), iii, 216, 226, 260–62.

  33. Emerton, Correspondence of Gregory VII, pp. 23, 25–6, 33, 39, 56–8, 60–61 for translations of some, but not all, the relevant letters of 1074 (cf. p. 165 for the 1080 reference to the ‘enemies of the Cross of Christ’); Cowdrey, ‘Gregory VII and Bearing of Arms’, esp. p. 30 and note 35 for refs. to Gregory’s Register, especially Gregory VII, Regestrum, ed. E. Caspar, MGH, Epistolae Selectae, 2, i–ii (Berlin 1920–23), bk I, nos. 46, 49; bk II, nos. 31, 37, pp. 69–71, 75–6, 165–8, 172–3; The Epistolae vagantes of Pope Gregory VII, ed. and trans. H. E. J. Cowdrey (Oxford 1972), no. 5, pp. 10–13; Cowdrey, ‘Pope Gregory VII’s “Crusading” Plans of
1074’, Outremer, ed. B. Kedar, H. E. Mayer and R. C. Smail (Jerusalem 1982), pp. 27–40.

  34. Chanson de Roland, v. 1015.

  35. William of Tyre, Chronicon, ed. R. B. C. Huygens, Corpus Christianorum Continuatio Mediaevalis, lxiii (Turnhout 1986), bk I, cc. 1–2, pp. 105–7 (Rubric to first chapter: ‘Quod tempore Eraclii… Homar… universam occupaverit Syriam’). Runciman, History of the Crusades, i, 3–5 has a famous purple passage on the fall of Jerusalem in 638; cf. a controversial alternative vision, P. Cronne and M. Cook, Hagarism: the Making of the Islamic World (Cambridge 1977), p. 51; for a conventional account, L. V. Vaglieri, ‘The Patriarchal and Umayyad Caliphates’, Cambridge History of Islam, ed. P. M. Holt et al. (Cambridge 1970), i, 62. Umar must have cut a striking figure; huge, with a long beard, he used to patrol the streets of Medina wielding a bullwhip.

  36. R. Fletcher, Moorish Spain (London 1992), p. 75.

  37. Storia de’ Normanni di Amato di Montecassino, ed. V. de Bartholomaeis (Rome 1935), v. 12, p. 234; quoted in C. Morris, The Papal Monarchy (Oxford 1989), p. 142 and, for this period in general, pp. 79–153.

  38. Epistolae pontificum Romanorum ineditae, ed. S. Löwenfeld (Leipzig 1885), no. 82, p. 43; Cowdrey, ‘Gregory VII and Bearing of Arms’, p. 28, note 31; Bull, Knightly Piety, pp. 72–8; A. Ferreiro, ‘The Siege of Barbastro’, Journal of Medieval History, ix (1983), 133–5.

  39. Glaber, Historiarum, pp. 134–7; for Sergius’s bull, Morris, Papal Monarchy, p. 146–7 and note 16; cf. A. Gieysztor, ‘The Genesis of the Crusades: the Encyclical of Sergius IV’, Medievalia et Humanistica, 5 (1949), 3–23, and 6 (1950), 3–34; for a Muslim view of western pilgrims c.1047 Naser-e Khosraw, Book of Travels (Saparnama), trans. W. M. Thackston Jnr (New York 1986), pp. 21, 35, 37–8.

  40. Ademar of Chabannes, Chronicon, ed. P. Bourgain, Opera Omnia, i, Corpus Christianorum Continuatio Mediaevalis, cxxix (Turnhout 1999), bk III, cc. 38, 39, 45, 47, 52, 55, 65, 68, 69, pp. 159, 160, 165–7, 171, 174, 184, 188–9.

  41. Glaber, Historiarum, pp. 37, 61, 83, 84–5, 118–21, 194–5, 196, 198–205, 206–7, 208–9, 212–15.

  42. See discussion by J. Riley-Smith, The First Crusade and the Idea of Crusading (London 1986), pp. 18–19 and notes 27, 29; Gregory VII, Regestrum, bk II, no. 37, p. 173.

  2: The Summons to Jerusalem

  1. Sigebert of Gembloux, Chronica, MGHS, vi, p. 368.

  2. Modern literature on the First Crusade is very extensive; for recent works in English in particular see Riley-Smith, First Crusade; idem, The First Crusaders 1095–1131 (Cambridge 1997); J. France, Victory in the East (Cambridge 1994); Runciman, History of the Crusades, vol. i remains a compelling read.

  3. Raymond of Aguilers, Historia, trans. J. H. and L. L. Hill, p. 15.

  4. The phrase is that of the anonymous Gesta Francorum, ed. and trans. R. Hill (Oxford 1972), p. 1.

  5. Bernold of St Blasien, Chronicon, MGHS, v. p. 462; for Alexius and the West, see esp. J. Shepard, ‘Aspects of Byzantine Attitudes and Policy Towards the West’, Byzantium and the West c. 850–c. 1200, ed. J. D. Howard-Johnston (Amsterdam 1988), pp. 102–18.

  6. Bernold of St Blasien, Chronicon, p. 462.

  7. R. Somerville, ‘The Council of Clermont’, in Papacy, Councils and Canon Law (London 1990), VII, p. 58 and passim; cf. ibid. V, ‘French Councils of Pope Urban II’ and VIII, ‘The Council of Clermont and the First Crusade’; for Baldwin, Albert of Aachen, Historia Hierosolymitana, RHC Occ., iv, 626.

  8. Annales S. Benigni Divionensis, MGHS, v, p. 43; Annales Besuensis (i.e. Blaise near Dijon), MGHS, ii, 250. For Urban’s itinerary, A. Becker, Papst Urban II (Stuttgart 1064–88), ii, 435–57.

  9. Hagenmeyer, Kreuzzugsbriefe, pp. 136–8; W. Wiederhold, ‘Papsturkunden in Florenz’, Nachrichten von der Gesellschaft des Wissenschaften zu Göttingen (Göttingen 1901), pp. 313–14; Fulk IV of Anjou, Gesta Andegavensium peregrinorum, RHC Occ., v, 345–6; Sigebert of Gembloux, Chronica, p. 367.

  10. H. E. J. Cowdrey, ‘Pope Urban II and the Idea of the Crusade’, Studi Medievali, 3rd series, 36 (1995), 737–8; Chroniques des comtes d’Anjou et des seigneurs d’Amboise, ed. L. Halphen et al. (Paris 1913), pp. 100–101.

  11. Geoffrey abbot of Vendôme, Epistolae, no. XXI, PL, clvii, col. 162; J. and L. Riley-Smith, Crusades, p. 38 for translation of Flemish letter; for the Clermont decrees, R. Somerville, The Councils of Urban II, i: Decreta Claromontensia (Amsterdam 1972) and above, note 7; J. D. Mansi, Sacrorum Conciliorum nova et amplissima Collectio, xx (Venice 1775), cols. 816–19.

  12. William of Malmesbury, Gesta Regum Anglorum, ed. R. A. B. Mynors et al., i (Oxford 1998), pp. 593–4.

  13. For a vivid reconstruction of Clermont, Runciman, History of the Crusades, pp. 107–8 and p. 108, note 1 for refs.

  14. Gerald of Wales, Journey Through Wales, trans. L. Thorpe (London 1978), p. 75.

  15. Hagenmeyer, Kreuzzugsbriefe, pp. 137–8; Vita Altmanni episcopi Pataviensis, MGHS, xii, 230; cf. Riley-Smith, First Crusaders, pp. 62–3, 81–3, 97. For penance and pilgrimage in crusade charters, ibid., esp. chaps. 3 and 4 and idem, First Crusade, esp. chap. 2.

  16. Becker, Papst Urban II, ii, 352–62 (esp. pp. 352–3), 374–6, 398–9.

  17. Urban to Bolognese, 19 Sept. 1096, Hagenmeyer, Kreuzzugsbriefe, pp. 137–8; J. and L. Riley-Smith, Crusades, p. 39.

  18. Robert the Monk (of Rheims), Historia, RHC Occ., iii, 727–30.

  19. Mansi, Sacrorum Conciliorum, xx, col. 816; Somerville, Decreta Claromontensia, p. 74; in general, H. E. J. Cowdrey, ‘Pope Urban II’s Preaching of the First Crusade’, History, 55 (1970), 177–88; for the Bologna letter, J. and L. Riley-Smith, Crusades, p. 39.

  20. Hagenmeyer, Kreuzzugsbriefe, pp. 136–7; J. and L. Riley-Smith, Crusades, p. 38.

  21. Fulk of Anjou, Gesta Andegavensium, RHC Occ., v, 345; J. and L. Riley-Smith, Crusades, p. 39.

  22. Tyerman, England and the Crusades, p. 13.

  23. Henry of Huntingdon, De captione Antiochae a Christianis, RHC Occ., v, 374.

  24. Glaber, Historiarum, pp. 200–201.

  25. Adhemar of Chabannes, Chronicon, bk III, c. 47, pp. 166–7.

  26. Vita Altmanni, p. 230.

  27. Benzo of Alba, Ad Heinricum IV. Imperatorem Libri VII, MGHS, xi, 605, 606, 616–17, 652; MGHS, lxv, 144; J. Shepard, ‘Cross-purposes: Alexius Comnenus and the First Crusade’, The First Crusade, ed. J. Phillips (Manchester 1997), pp. 107–29 and note 5 above.

  28. Cowdrey, ‘Urban II and the Idea of Crusade’, pp. 721–42; cf. G. J. C. Snoek, Medieval Piety: From Relics to the Eucharist (Leiden 1995), pp. 25–6, 35; Adhemar of Chabannes, Opera, PL, cxli, col. 110.

  29. Snoek, Medieval Piety, p. 87.

  30. Winchester Annals, Annales Monastici, ed. H. R. Luard, Rolls Series (London 1864–69), ii, 38.

  31. Hagenmeyer, Kreuzzugsbriefe, pp. 142, 164; Gesta Francorum, p. 7 (for the date, often recorded as Sept. 1096, E. Jamison, ‘Some Notes on the Anonymi Gesta Francorum’, Studies in French Medieval Literature Presented to M. K. Pope (Manchester 1939), pp. 183–208.

  32. R. Chazan, European Jewry and the First Crusade (Berkeley and Los Angeles 1987), p. 77; cf. S. Eidelberg, The Jews and the Crusaders: The Hebrew Chronicles of the First and Second Crusades (Madison 1977), pp. 21–115.

  33. Baldric of Bourgeuil, Historia Jerosolimitana, RHC Occ., iv, 12.

  34. Hagenmeyer, Kreuzzugsbriefe, p. 136.

  35. Note 21 above; Hagenmeyer, Kreuzzugsbriefe, pp. 136–44, 176, 179; Urban’s letters, J. and L. Riley-Smith, Crusades, pp. 38–40; for Limoges, RHC Occ., v, 350–53; for Amanieu, Cartulaire du prieuré de Sainte-Pierre de la Réole, ed. C. Grellet-Balguerie, Archives historiques de la Gironde, v (1863), 140.

  36. Hill, Gesta Francorum, pp. 19–20.

  37. Riley-Smith, First Crusaders, p. 62 and ref. note 41; PL, clvii, col. 162.

  38. Hagenmeyer, Kreuzzugsbriefe, p. 138; cf. p. 154 for the leaders talking of pilgrimage in 1098; see note 15 above for pilgrimage motifs in charters.

  39. Notitiae duae Lemoviensis d
e praedicatione crucis in Aquitania, RHC Occ., v, 350–53. For the importance of Christocentric festivals, see the deal between Cluny and Achard of Montmerle on 12 April, i.e. Easter Saturday, 1096, Bruel, Chartes de Cluny, v, 51–3.

  40. Riley-Smith, First Crusaders, p. 75; France, Victory, p. 45.

  41. For monkish touts, Cartulaires de l’abbaye de Molesme 916–1250, ed. J. Laurent (Paris 1907–11), ii, 83–4; Cartulaire de l’abbaye de Noyers, Mémoires de la société archéologique de Touraine, xxii (1872), ed. C. Chevalier, pp. 274–5; Cartulaire du prieuré de Notre Dame de Longpont de l’ordre de Cluny, ed. A. Marion (Lyons 1879), pp. 189–90; for the inculcation of a crusader’s sense of sin, Cartulaire Manceau de Marmoutier, ed. E. Laurain (Laval 1911–45), ii, 86–9.

  42. Hill, Gesta Francorum, p. 2.

  43. Caffaro, De liberatione civitatum Orientis, RHC Occ., v, 49.

  44. The chief primary sources for Peter are Albert of Aachen, Historia, RHC Occ., iv, 271–4; Guibert of Nogent, Gesta Dei per Francos, RHC Occ., iv, 142–3 (p. 140 for ‘great rumour’); Anna Comnena, The Alexiad, trans. E. R. A. Sewter (London 1969), pp. 309–11; cf. Orderic Vitalis, Ecclesiastical History, ed. and trans. M. ChIbnall (Oxford 1969–79), v, 29. See E. O. Blake and C. Morris, ‘A Hermit Goes to War: Peter and the Origins of the First Crusade’, Monks, Hermits and the Ascetic Tradition, ed. W. J. Shields, Studies in Church History, xxii (1985), 79–109, which challenges the orthodoxy established by H. Hagenmeyer, Peter der Eremite (Leipzig 1879); the patriarch’s letter is translated by E. Peters, The First Crusade (2nd edn Philadelphia 1998), pp. 283–4; I am grateful to Jonathan Shepard for discussion on some of these points.