The Exodus

by Richard Elliott Friedman

  control of Canaan, 77–78, 252n114

  gods of, 182–183

  and Israelite culture, 27, 53–57, 200

  and Israelite literature, 17, 57–59

  and Levite names, 32–34, 64, 81, 200, 243n13, 259n57

  and monotheism, 133–141, 146, 155, 215, 216

  and Moses, 48, 123–129, 133–141

  and treatment of aliens, 62–63, 65, 82, 200–203

  See also Akhenaten; Aten; Pharaoh

  ’eḥād, 158

  Ehrensvärd, M., 251n97

  Eissfeldt, Otto, 265n11

  El, 46, 47, 144, 155, 246n42

  merger with Yahweh, 49–53, 82–83, 121–122, 144–145, 149, 152, 155, 168, 183, 203, 215

  in names, 92, 152, 170, 264n47

  El Shadday, 48

  ’eleph, 21, 241n21

  Elephantine, 96

  Elijah, 159–160, 190, 206, 266n17

  Elohim, 46, 47, 49, 155, 170, 171, 183, 246n41–43

  epigraphy, 35, 100–101, 103. See also Hebrew (language)

  Esarhaddon, 263n43

  Esau, 117

  Eshel, H., 254n5

  ethical monotheism, 214

  Eve, 47, 118, 187

  exile (Babylonian), 96, 101, 156, 161, 163, 165, 168, 188, 193, 265n12

  and monotheism, 151–153

  and Second Isaiah, 153–155

  Ezekiel, 55, 126–127, 184, 262n19

  Ezion Geber (Eilat), 89

  Fagan, Brian, 262n31

  Faigenbaum-Golovina, Shira, 255n22

  Faust, Avraham, 28–29, 239n3, 242n3, 250n85, 256n32

  Finkelstein, Israel, 15, 29, 67, 69–70, 99, 240n3, 240nn7–9, 242nn4–5, 250n88, 250n91, 250n94–95, 255n22, 256n37

  Five Books of Moses. See Pentateuch; Torah

  Fohrer, Georg, 249n81

  fragmentary hypothesis, 44

  Frahm, Eckart, 263n43

  Frankfort, Henri, 260n59, 263n44

  Freedman, David Noel, 35–37, 39, 40, 41, 65, 143, 155–156, 191, 240n2, 243nn15–17, 243n20, 244n23, 244n26, 246n45, 256n30, 258n45, 265n10, 265n12, 266n15, 267n30, 269n59, 272n1

  Freud, Sigmund, 134–141, 262nn30–34

  Fritz, Volkmar, 242n2, 253n116, 253n118, 255n19

  Garfinkel, Yosef, 255n18

  Garr, Randall, 246n47

  genetics, 106–112, 259n58

  Geoghegan, Jeffrey, 256n30

  Gershom, 57, 125, 261n11

  Gezer, 98, 100

  goddesses, 113, 142, 168, 175, 177, 182, 183, 186, 191, 192, 194, 205, 215, 269n57, 270n61. See also Asherah; Queen of the Heavens

  gods, 38, 113–114, 139, 142, 150–151, 152, 153, 156, 158, 160–161, 162, 192, 194, 195, 205, 215, 216, 267n33, 267n35

  death, 168–177, 181–188, 191

  Goldstein, David, 110, 111, 258n48, 258n51, 259n55

  Gottwald, Norman, 246n47, 252n109

  Greenberg, Moshe, 247n58, 268n47

  Habiru. See ‘Apiru

  Hadley, Judith, 270n61

  Hagar, 124, 261n6

  Hall, J., 241n23

  Hall, R. G., 248n62

  Halpern, Baruch, 11, 30–31, 58–59, 81, 99, 239n4, 241n21, 241n1 (chap. 2), 242n2, 243n11, 243n16, 243n18, 244n23, 244n25, 248n65, 248n69, 248n71, 249n81, 250n86, 253n117, 253n119, 254n5, 256n30, 257n38, 258n44, 260n60, 260n65, 262n21, 262n27, 263n41, 264n5, 265n12, 265n15, 269n57, 270n8

  Hamilton, Victor, 268n35

  Hammurapi, 215

  Hanson, Paul, 264n6, 264n8

  Harford-Battersby, G., 245n35, 249n81, 261n12, 272n1

  Harris, Mark, 22, 241n22, 241n24

  Hartung, John, 212–213, 271n22

  Hazor, 40, 80, 98, 100, 252n116

  Hebrew (language), 21, 101–102, 115, 127, 156, 166–168, 189, 260n61, 271n12

  inscriptions, 88–95, 97, 100–101

  See also epigraphy

  Hebrews, 13, 29, 33, 210

  Hendel, Ronald, 77–78, 134, 167, 243n16, 251n97, 252n108, 252n114, 258n43, 266n25, 267n34

  henotheism, 139, 151, 160, 162

  Herodotus, 114, 240n11

  Hesse, Brian, 257n40

  Hestrin, Ruth, 253n4, 257n42

  Hezekiah, 42, 89, 95, 97, 166, 192, 199

  Hiebert, Theodore, 180, 268n41

  Hillel, 44

  Hirah the Adullamite, 210

  Hitchens, Christopher, 194

  Hobab, 262n27

  Hoffmeier, James, 17, 29, 59, 71, 240n14, 242n1, 242n8, 248n65, 248n71, 251n99, 263n38, 263n40, 263n42

  Holladay, John S., 99–100, 257n39

  Holladay, William, 265n13

  Homan, Michael, 54, 65, 93, 247n53, 255n21

  Hophni, 32, 243n12

  Horeb, 131, 247n48. See also Sinai

  Horvat ‘Uza, 92

  Hosea, 156, 160–161

  Huddlestun, John, 241n18

  Hur, 32, 243nn12–13

  Hurvitz, Avi, 251n97, 257n43

  Hyksos, 28, 65, 251n100

  Ibn Ezra, Abraham, 247n58

  idols, 137, 187, 192, 193, 211

  Iron II, 100

  Isaac, 46, 48, 117, 118, 124, 126, 145, 207

  Isaiah, 153, 179, 264n6

  Ishmael, Ishmaelites, 124, 261n8

  Islam. See Muslims

  Israel, Israelites, 2, 16, 17, 32, 36, 44, 46, 54, 70, 71, 88, 89, 92, 94, 98–100, 103, 115, 137–141, 142–146, 149, 162, 163, 166–168, 185–186, 189, 191–192, 200, 205–206, 214

  and the Blessing of Moses, 41

  Canaanite origins of, 15, 50

  and the exodus, 10, 13–15, 21, 27, 29–30, 53, 57, 58–59, 66–68, 76, 77–78, 79–81, 123

  in inscriptions, 66, 95–96

  and love of neighbor, 206–210

  merger with Levites, 51, 104–105, 113, 116–117, 121, 150, 168, 188, 199

  separate from Judah, 70, 87, 111

  and the Song of Deborah, 40

  and the Song of Moses, 169–172, 181

  and the Song of the Sea, 39–40, 243–244n20

  and treatment of aliens, 62–64, 200–203

  See also Samaria; Samaria ostraca

  ‘Izbet Sartah inscription, 92

  J source, 46, 47, 51, 53, 54, 58, 63, 70, 74, 79, 105, 116, 200, 245n38, 246n42, 248n61, 248n64, 248n70, 249n72, 249–250n81, 250n83, 261nn11–12, 263n43, 268n38, 268n42, 268n45, 271–272n1

  circumcision in J, 55–57

  gods in J, 183–185

  Midian in J, 127–128

  plagues, 59–60

  slavery, 61–62

  Jacob, 46, 48, 56, 72, 74, 107, 115, 117, 118, 126, 145, 169, 171, 181, 207, 210

  Jacobs, Louis, 244n30

  Jehu, 95

  Jenks, Alan, 272n1

  Jeremiah, 55, 156, 160–161, 189–190, 192, 193

  Jericho, 80, 203

  Jeroboam I, 111, 112

  Jeroboam II, 89, 99

  Jerusalem, 3, 43, 90–91, 95, 97, 98, 100, 130, 153, 190, 239n3. See also City of David

  Jesus, 158, 165, 199

  Jethro, 125, 128, 133, 272n1

  Jews, 19, 78, 80, 87, 96, 108, 112, 113, 165, 177, 188, 189, 193, 200, 205, 206, 208, 213, 215, 253n1

  and exile, 96, 101, 151, 153, 167

  See also Judah, Judean

  Jezebel, 206

  Job, 151, 173–174, 175, 184, 267n35

  Joosten, Jan, 251n97, 258n43

  Joseph, 68, 115, 117, 124, 145, 261n8, 263n43

  Joshua, 80, 117

  Josiah, 166, 192, 265n14, 270n66

  Jotham, 89

  Judah, Judean, 16, 41, 42, 72, 100, 101, 107, 112, 115, 152, 153, 161, 165, 166–168, 190, 192, 202, 243n13, 244n24, 253n1, 265n14

  in inscriptions, 95–96

  inscriptions found in, 88–95

  merger with Levites, 104–105, 113, 116–117, 121, 150, 168, 188, 199

  separate from Israel, 70, 87, 111

  Kaufmann, Yehezkel, 142, 260n59, 264n44, 264n46

  Kershner, Isabel, 256n22

  Keturah, 124, 261n6

  King, Philip,
254n5, 254n9, 254n16, 257n40

  Kirsch, Jonathan, 239n4

  Kitchen, K. A., 17, 240n14

  Knauf, Ernst Axel, 243n12

  Knohl, Israel, 266n28, 270n2

  Kochavi, Moshe, 255n18

  Kohanim. See Cohen gene;

  kohen kohen, 74, 108, 109, 111–112. See also Cohen gene

  Korah, 92, 254n13

  Kugel, James, 244n30

  Kuntillet ‘Ajrud, 190–192

  Kurkh Monolith, 95

  Kutsko, John, 265n9

  Lachish, 91, 98, 100

  Lambdin, Thomas O., 271n12

  Lamech, 246n41

  Leah, 56, 117

  Lemaire, André, 239n2, 256n29, 261n2, 262n29, 269n57

  Leningrad Codex, 170

  Levant, 16, 28, 29, 65

  Levi, 40–41, 56, 64, 69, 72–73, 105, 107, 109–111, 117, 203, 250n83. See also Levite gene; Levites

  levi, 63, 65, 67, 107, 202, 250n83, 259n57

  Levin, David, 255n22

  Levine, Lee, 14, 29, 240n6, 242n6

  Levite gene, 109–112, 259n58. See also Cohen gene; Levi; levi; Levites

  Levites, 87–88, 92, 145–146, 155, 165, 199, 247n48, 247n52, 250n83, 251nn100–101, 251n103, 259n52, 259nn57–58

  and circumcision, 54–57, 80, 82

  and the documentary hypothesis, 46–53, 116, 123–127, 128–130, 149, 182, 245n32, 249n72, 249n74

  and Egyptian names, 32–34, 243n13

  and the exodus, 30–71, 79, 121, 123, 149

  genetics, 106–112, 259n58

  merger with Israel and Judah, 51, 104–105, 113, 116–117, 121, 150, 168, 188, 199

  and Moses, 140–145

  as priests and teachers, 74–78, 168, 251n103

  and treatment of aliens, 200–203

  and violence, 72–74

  See also Levi; levi; Levite gene

  Levy, Thomas, 240n2, 240n15, 241n23, 242n2

  Lewis, Theodore, 267n34

  Liberia, 67

  Lichtheim, Miriam, 263n38

  Lipschitz, Oded, 254n11

  literacy, 35, 94–95, 255n18, 256n22

  lmlk stamp, 89–90, 254n5

  Long, V. P., 242n1

  Longman, T., 242n1

  Lundberg, Marilyn J., 255n20

  Lundbom, Jack, 270n6

  Machinist, Peter, 177, 184, 185, 268n48, 268n50

  Maeir, Aren, 262n31

  Magness, Jodi, 242n3

  Malamat, Abraham, 17, 66, 250nn86–87, 256n24

  Manasseh, 192

  Manning, Sturt, 241n24

  Mansfield, Clarimond, 272n1

  Masoretic Text, 49, 260n62, 266n29

  Matthews, Victor H., 244n29, 256n23, 263n39

  Mazar, Amihai, 252n116, 253n117, 253n3 (chap. 3), 256n24, 256n33

  Mazar, Eilat, 98, 239n3, 256n24

  McCarter, P. Kyle, 255n20, 267n34

  McCoy, F., 241n23

  McKenzie, John L., 264n6

  McKenzie, Steven, 239n4

  Megiddo, 89, 95, 98–99, 100

  Mendenhall, George, 131, 241n20, 262n24

  Merari, 32, 243n12

  Merneptah stele, 66, 80, 95, 104, 140

  Merneptah, 66, 69, 80, 95, 204

  Mesha stele, 80, 96, 204, 244n28. See also Moab, Moabite

  Meshel, Ze’ev, 190, 269n56

  Mettinger, Tryggve, 264n7

  Meyers, Carol, 127, 242n1, 244n31, 250n92, 261n17

  Midian, Midianite, 73, 118, 149, 155, 204, 262n21, 262n27, 272n1

  and Edom, 131–133, 140, 144

  and monotheism, 141–142, 145–146

  and Moses, 55–56, 68, 81, 122–133, 141, 146

  Milgrom, Jacob, 209, 251n97, 258n43, 270n2, 271n14

  Millar, William, 264n6

  Millard, Alan, 255n18, 256n22

  Miller, Patrick, 259n57

  Miller-Naudé, Cynthia, 251n97

  Miriam, 36, 69, 243n12

  Mishna, 101

  Moab, Moabite, 38, 81, 95, 96. See also Mesha stele

  monotheism, 1, 5, 113, 142, 150–151, 168, 177–178, 193–195, 199, 206, 214–215, 263n36, 263nn40–41, 264n8, 265n9, 265n14, 268n45, 268n52

  and Akhenaten, 137–141, 145–146

  and centralization, 163–166

  and the death of the gods, 168, 183–188

  and the exile, 151–153, 167–168

  and the goddess, 191–193

  merger of El and Yahweh, 82, 121–122, 149–150, 203

  in pre-exilic texts, 155–161

  in Second Isaiah, 153–155

  and the Ten Commandments, 151, 161–163

  See also ethical monotheism

  de Moor, Johannes, 17, 240n13

  Moran, William, 263n36

  Moses, 3, 10, 15, 17, 30, 55–57, 68, 69, 75, 81, 92, 107, 145, 174, 175, 181, 209, 210, 243n12, 249n73, 250n97, 272n1

  as Egyptian, 133–141, 146

  as innovator, 141–143, 146

  meaning of, 32–34

  and Midian, 68, 81, 122–133, 146, 204

  revelation of God’s name, 9, 46, 47–51, 64, 82, 144, 149, 200

  See also Blessing of Moses; Song of Moses

  Muniz, A., 242n2

  Mushi, 32, 243n12

  Mushite priests, 130, 262n21

  Muslims, 187, 193, 203, 215

  Na’aman, Nadav, 77, 252n109, 255n22

  Najjar, Mohammad, 242n2

  Nathan, 210

  Naveh, Joseph, 239n2, 256n30

  Necho II, 68, 250n90

  neighbor, 199, 200, 206, 208–214, 215 216

  Nelson, Richard, 259n57, 266n15

  Nephilim, 174

  New Testament, 158, 199

  Niditch, Susan, 260n62

  Noah, 45, 118, 184

  Noegel, Scott, 51, 54, 65, 149, 247n49, 247n55

  Nof, Doron, 241n23

  Noth, Martin, 247n58, 249n81, 261n12, 265n15, 272n1

  Nurmela, Risto, 111, 259n55

  O’Brien, Mark, 245n35

  Omri, 96

  oral history, 114–116, 260n62

  Oren, Moshe, 106

  Orlinsky, Harry, 211, 271n19

  Ostrer, Harry, 110, 259n54

  P source, 46, 47–48, 51, 53, 55, 61, 70, 79, 105, 116, 200–201, 245n38, 246n42, 248n64, 248n70, 248n72, 262n19, 262n21, 268n38, 268n45, 270n2, 271n1

  gods in P, 183–184

  Midian in P, 128–130, 204

  parallels with Egyptian tradition, 57–59

  plagues, 59–60

  paganism, 113–114, 142, 159, 185–186, 192, 193, 195, 205, 214

  Paldor, Nathan, 241n23

  Palestine, 16, 240n11

  Parfitt, Tudor, 258n48

  Pashhur, 32

  Passover, 14, 19, 20, 78, 113

  Paul, Shalom, 264nn5–6

  Pentateuch, 33, 45, 54, 201, 244n31, 260n62. See also Torah

  Persia, Persians, 95, 96, 167

  Petrie, Flinders, 66

  Pharaoh, 21, 28, 33, 60, 62, 68–69, 79, 117, 125. See also Merneptah; Rameses II; Rameses III

  Philistines, 71, 240n11

  Phinehas, 32, 73, 129, 243n12

  Piasetzky, Eli, 255n22

  Pithom, 58, 248n70

  plagues, 12, 20, 59–60, 79, 262n20

  polytheism, 5, 151, 161, 165, 191, 193–194, 195

  Polzin, Robert, 250n97, 258n43

  Pope, Marvin, 173, 268n43

  pork, 100

  Porten, Bezalel, 256n28

  Poulter, Andrew, 255n16

  Priestly Blessing, 91, 254n8

  priests, 30, 40, 46, 54, 55, 74, 105, 113, 121, 130, 165, 168

  and genetics, 106–112

  See also Aaronid priests; Levites; Mushite priests

  Prince of Egypt (film), 1

  Pritchard, James B., 244n29, 256n23

  Propp, William, 2, 18, 56, 63, 65, 123, 134, 161, 202, 239n1, 240nn15–16, 241n18, 241n1 (chap. 2), 243n12, 247n58, 248n70, 248n72, 249n81, 250n83, 261nn2–3, 261n12, 262n32, 263n36, 266n18, 268n44, 270n5, 271–272n1

  Provan, Iain, 242n1, 266
n15

  Psalm 82, 175–177, 180, 182, 184, 191

  Puah, 69

  Puech, Emile, 239n2

  puns, 115–116, 260nn61–62

  Queen of the Heavens, 188–193. See also Asherah; goddesses

  Qumran. See Dead Sea Scrolls

  Rachel, 117

  Rainey, Anson, 255n16

  Rameses (city), 58, 248n70

  Rameses II, 53–54, 64, 66, 69, 82, 247n54

  Rameses III, 69

  Rank, Otto, 262n34

  Rashi, 247n58, 261n6, 266n27

  rē‘a, 209–210, 211–213, 216

  Rebekah, 117, 258n44

  Red Sea, 1, 19–20, 21, 37, 39, 241n18, 241n23

  redactor, 33, 44, 45, 237

  Redford, Donald, 13, 69–70, 123, 240n4, 243n12, 248n65, 250n93, 250n97, 261nn4–5, 263n36, 263n38, 268n52

  Rehoboam, 111

  Reichmann, Sirje, 263n38

  Rendsburg, Gary, 57–59, 65, 71, 248n63, 250n97, 258n43

  Reuel. See Jethro

  Rezetko, Robert, 251n97

  Rollston, Christopher, 255n18

  Romans, 16, 165, 193, 194

  Römer, Thomas, 132, 242n1, 246n44, 261n2, 262n19, 262n26

  Rootsi, Siiri, 259n52

  Royal Song of Thanksgiving, 155–156

  Russell, Brian D., 243n16

  Sabbath, 62, 249n81

  Salomon, A., 241n23

  Samaria, 91, 100, 190, 191, 192

  Samaria ostraca, 91, 254n9

  Sanders, Paul, 265n12

  Sarah, 68, 117, 124

  Sargon of Akkade, 135

  Sarna, Nahum, 67

  Sass, Benjamin, 255n22

  Sasson, Jack, 248n62

  satan, 267–268n35

  Schmid, Konrad, 243n16, 244n31

  Schmidt, Brian, 256n22

  Schneider, Thomas, 240n15

  Schniedewind, William, 256n30

  Schulte, Hannelis, 271n1

  Schwartz, Daniel R., 253n1

  Second Isaiah, 153–155, 157, 159, 160–161, 264n6, 265n9

  Seir, 131–133, 140, 144. See also Edom, Edomites

  Sennacherib, 42, 95, 244n29, 256n27

  Seow, C. L., 268n36

  Sephardi, 108, 109, 110

  Septuagint, 49, 171, 173, 266n29

  Sforno, 247n58

  Shalmaneser III, 95

  Shanks, Hershel, 253n117

  Shasu, 28, 65, 132, 242n2 of yhwh, 122–123, 144

  Shausa, Arie, 255n22

  Shechem, 56, 72

  shechinah, 191

  Shiloh, 40

  Shiloh, Yigal, 3, 97, 239n3

  Shilonite priests. See Mushite priests

  Shiphrah, 69

  Shishak (Shoshenk), 68, 95, 250n90

  Silberman, Neil, 15, 29, 67, 240n3, 240nn7–9, 242nn4–5, 250n88, 250n91, 250nn94–95, 256n37

  Siloam Tunnel, 96–97

  Simeon, 72, 243n13, 244n24

  Sinai, 15, 17, 27, 40, 66, 82, 104, 131, 132, 133, 247n48. See also Horeb

  Skorecki, Karl, 106, 108–109, 111, 258nn48–49, 259n54