The Annotated Emma

by Jane Austen

  12. “Farmer” was used most frequently to refer to those, like Robert Martin, who rented land to farm. But it could sometimes mean anyone, owner or renter, who cultivated the land, and that is the case here.

  13. in hand: in his charge, under his control.

  14. The home farm would be what he farms directly instead of renting out.

  15. English agriculture was characterized by crop rotation, in which each field would go through a cycle of three or four different plantings. Thus each year every field would bear a different crop than in the previous year. The purpose was to prevent certain crops from exhausting the nutrients in the soil; the development of more sophisticated crop rotations was an important factor in raising agricultural productivity in this period.

  16. The installation of increased drainage in fields was another innovation practiced by many farmers during this time. It was generally done in heavy clay soils where excess water made plowing more difficult and, most importantly, hurt the growth and root structure of plants. A frequent and effective technique was to cut rows of drains beneath the surface to move water away from the fields.

  17. Wheat was the most basic cereal crop in England, due to the centrality of bread to the English diet. Turnips had become a central feature of the new crop rotations, for when planted during one cycle they would not take nutrients from the soil, thereby allowing it to replenish itself, and they could be fed to livestock, thereby increasing meat production as well as the supply of manure. “Corn” in British English means any kind of grain, and thus most likely refers to wheat, barley, or oats, the principal ones then grown in England (the latter two were used mainly for beer and horse fodder, respectively); spring corn would be the grain to be sown in the spring (some was planted other times of year). Mr. Knightley’s engagement with these matters marks him as an active farmer and landowner, characteristics he will manifest throughout the novel.

  18. South End is a seaside resort. For more, see note 43.

  19. Mr. Wingfield was already mentioned as the family’s doctor, greatly relied upon by Isabella.

  20. should: would.

  21. The development of the seaside as a popular destination during the eighteenth century received its initial impetus from medical recommendations of the health benefits of the sea. Various medical writers ascribed benefits to immersion in the water (usually for a short time) and to drinking seawater; Jane Austen herself tried both. As time went on increasing numbers visited the sea purely for pleasure, though many still justified their visits as being principally for health reasons. Numerous coastal towns in England had developed into seaside resorts by this point. Jane Austen’s last, unfinished novel, Sanditon, is set in an imagined seaside resort.

  22. Emma’s need to look after her father has prevented her from ever traveling away from home. It is not clear how much she really regrets this—she never mentions the subject again. Right now her reason for raising the issue is to distract Mr. Woodhouse from lamenting his daughter’s going to the seaside, and by extension her living away from home, which runs the risk of provoking a sharp response from John Knightley were he to overhear. She will continue to employ such expedients during this whole conversation, though they end up only delaying the eventual outburst.

  23. bilious: afflicted with excess secretion of bile. This was a common diagnosis then, for medical theories had long attributed critical importance to bile.

  24. country: county.

  25. Isabella continues to call her father “my dear sir” or “sir,” the same designations that people use for those outside their family. It is an indication of deference on her part: Emma almost always addresses her father as “papa” or “my dear papa.”

  26. Since it is now almost Christmas, they have been applying the embrocation a long time, an indication of Isabella’s solicitousness regarding health.

  27. In comments on this novel Jane Austen expressed particular pride in this whole conversation, one in which the various characters of the participants are so well delineated and contrasted.

  28. heavy: severe.

  29. Influenza epidemics had long struck Europe, including Britain, with each outbreak spreading rapidly before soon subsiding. Britain experienced epidemics in 1782, 1788, and 1803. In each case huge numbers contracted the disease but deaths were low.

  30. altogether: on the whole.

  31. London, like other cities of the time, did have a higher mortality rate than the countryside, due to crowding and poor sanitation and water supplies.

  32. Bad air was one of the most frequent complaints about London.

  33. Brunswick Square had only recently been developed; it was named after Caroline of Brunswick, the wife of the Prince Regent, the reigning monarch at the time of this novel. It is near the City of London, the commercial center of London as well as the location of the law courts (see map). By this time this section of London was not fashionable, for the wealthy all congregated in the West End, especially in the areas of Mayfair and Marylebone, which had been developed during the eighteenth century. In Sense and Sensibility, much of which is set in London, all the characters, except two who are distinctly poorer, inhabit the West End while in the city. John Knightley could certainly afford to live in that section, which would offer greater opportunities for social life as well as greater status (for more on his income, see note 12). Its drawback would be a greater distance from his work. His choice of Brunswick Square shows how much he values his work and his ability to be with his family when not working above all other considerations. For a picture of another square in the vicinity of Brunswick Square, see this page.

  34. Isabella, like her father, displays a nervous character. At the same time, during this period “nervous” had a broader meaning, for many ailments were described as nervous (see note 30).

  35. in such good case: doing so well, especially with regard to one’s physical condition.

  36. She is speaking to Mr. Knightley, who would have friends with their own estates. Mr. Graham is never mentioned again; he is presumably a landowner in a nearby rural area. Mr. Knightley could easily know landowners from outside this immediate area, whether because of the wider scope and interests created by his wealth and extensive property or because of his work as a magistrate, in which his jurisdiction would extend over multiple parishes and which would require him four times a year to attend the countywide quarter sessions, where matters of county government as well as certain legal cases were decided. The bailiff is the principal agent of a landowner, who would manage the estate; he is similar to a steward, which Mr. Knightley has for his property (see note 36).

  37. In 1707 Scotland was joined with England to form Great Britain, but England and Scotland continued to be very different societies, and long-standing animosities, forged in centuries of wars between the two peoples, remained. English antipathy was further exacerbated by the Jacobite uprising of 1745, in which a rival claimant to the British throne invaded England from his base in the Scottish Highlands. During the succeeding period, even as the British government suppressed the traditional clan system and society of the Highlands to prevent future uprisings, Scotland experienced increased commercial prosperity and an intellectual and cultural flowering. Many Scots also came to England, often achieving great success. This, while provoking a further anti-Scotch reaction among some threatened by the success, also raised many people’s estimation of the Scots, as did the substantial Scottish contribution to the British armed forces. Finally, as the Scottish Highlanders ceased to pose a political threat, they became a greater object of fascination and sympathy, with Romantic writers, imbued with ideals of the noble savage, celebrating them for their simple way of life and primitive virtues.

  38. Jane Fairfax has lived most of her life with a family that resides in London (see this page). It would make sense that she and Isabella experience only occasional encounters, for Jane Fairfax probably resides in the West End, given the wealth of her resident family, and Isabella does not seem like someone to
venture around town much.

  39. This is an observation made elsewhere, and Emma’s refusal to follow this recommended course of intimacy with Jane plays a crucial role in the story.

  40. Philippics: speeches of denunciation. The term originated from the political speeches of the ancient Greek orator Demosthenes against Philip of Macedon; Jane Austen also uses the term in Sense and Sensibility to describe an equally silly and banal denunciation.

  41. instance: cite as an example.

  42. It may have been too much expense and trouble to convey their own cook to South End. A woman available for temporary hire would be less likely to be an accomplished cook.

  43. Southend, or South End (it is now called Southend-on-Sea), is a town in Essex, the county immediately northeast of London; it lies along the estuary into which the River Thames flows (see map). It developed as a seaside resort in the 1790s, spurred by its proximity to London. Its development was encouraged by a visit of a royal princess there, but it never rivaled the leading established resorts. One reason was the mud found on its shore at low tides; another was the belief in the unhealthiness of the nearby Essex marshes, which may have inspired the opinion of Mr. Woodhouse. South End catered especially to those who valued a more sedate atmosphere, which, along with its location, would make it highly suitable for John and Isabella.

  Queens Square, in Bloomsbury, the same area of London where Brunswick Square, the Knightleys’ residence, is located.

  [From The Repository of Arts, Literature, Fashions, Manufactures, &c, Vol. VIII (1812), p. 150]

  [List of Illustrations]

  44. Cromer is a town on the east coast of England, much farther north than South End and hence much farther from London. It had also developed as a vacation spot toward the end of the eighteenth century, boosted particularly by its natural beauty. But its location kept it from becoming very popular or fashionable. At the same time, its small size meant that it was less expensive than most seaside resorts, and this may have been what attracted Mr. Perry to it, for as an ordinary doctor he would not have a high income.

  45. Cromer faced directly onto the North Sea; in contrast, South End faced the Thames estuary.

  46. She is vague in her estimate of the distance. Her husband shortly declares the first distance to be 130 miles. He would be the one who organized the trip; she also may be deliberately lowering the number in order to avoid appearing to oppose her father so sharply.

  47. keep: restrain, withhold.

  48. Prescribing drugs was the principal method of medical practitioners then, due to the absence of many other means of treatment. Many practitioners also sold drugs.

  49. These are the exact respective distances between London and Cromer and South End. Jane Austen always is highly accurate on distances. The farther distance of Cromer would make a huge difference, because travel then was expensive, slow, and liable to make people ill due to the bumpiness of carriages. At the prevailing speed of seven to eight miles an hour, the Knightley family would be able to reach South End in less than a day, but they would need two days to go to Cromer, which would then necessitate the further trouble and expense of lodging a large family at an inn.

  50. Mr. Knightley’s quick intervention to prevent further offense to Mr. Woodhouse echoes Emma’s intervention earlier. They will reveal a similar quickness and thoughtfulness on other occasions.

  51. “Langham” is a fictitious name for a local site or landmark. There is no settlement of that name in this part of England.

  52. The home meadows are where Mr. Knightley would graze his livestock. He presumably would prefer for them not to be split by the path. Many landowners at this time made changes to routes, sometimes even altering the course of main roads to the inconvenience of local people, in order to accommodate their plans for their own property; their political and social power would often allow them to override any opposition. That Mr. Knightley concerns himself with ensuring no such inconvenience occurs, even when redirecting a mere footpath, indicates his consideration and thoughtfulness.

  53. evil: trouble, pain.

  A woman at the beach.

  [From The Repository of Arts, Literature, Fashions, Manufactures, &c, Vol. II (1809), p. 192]

  [List of Illustrations]

  VOLUME I, CHAPTER XIII

  1. Morning and evening together comprised almost one’s entire waking hours, since afternoon was only a very brief interval between them.

  2. The “though at Christmas” probably refers to the barriers posed by winter weather. Christmas then, while not celebrated as extensively as it is now, was definitely a time when family and friends would visit one another for social events.

  3. Since the Woodhouses’ carriage is probably small, they would never be able to convey everyone going to the Westons—see below, note 19.

  4. She would need to stay away for the sake of others as well as herself. People at the time understood very well the contagious nature of many diseases, though, lacking any knowledge of germs, they did not understand how the contagions operated.

  5. dependence of: expectation of, confidence in.

  6. The wording suggests that Mr. Elton’s principal concern is visiting Emma and performing a service for her rather than Harriet’s health.

  7. A recipe of the time calls for eggs, cream, butter, and sugar to be added to rice to make a pudding. Rice, like sugar and a number of other food and drink items, had to be imported from outside Britain. This was a relatively new development, the product of increased global trade networks, in which Britain had taken the lead, and was the instigator of a gradual diversification of the typical diet.

  8. Feeling someone’s temperature and taking their pulse were two of the only diagnostic tools available then. Body thermometers existed but were not widely used, in part because they required a long time to gain an accurate reading, while stethoscopes to listen to heartbeats had not yet come into usage.

  9. A “putrid sore throat” was the name sometimes given to diphtheria, though it could also mean other infections of the throat. Several potentially fatal ailments were characterized by inflamed throats, so Mr. Elton’s fears are not unreasonable, though in this case there has been nothing to indicate Harriet is suffering from more than a cold. It is also significant that his primary concern is whether she is infectious, and thus a danger to Emma.

  10. Mr. Elton will need to conduct Christmas services tomorrow, which will include preaching a sermon.

  11. This is the first time the narrator has explicitly described Emma as in error regarding Mr. Elton, even as various incidents have clearly implied her errors. It is an appropriate transition to a major event about to unfold.

  A barrister (Sir George Trafford Heald, K.C.).

  [From Sir Walter Armstrong, Lawrence (London, 1913), p. 56]

  [List of Illustrations]

  12. Meaning every part of him strives to make an impression. John Knightley’s preference for rational, unaffected behavior echoes the similar preference, expressed numerous times, of his brother.

  13. Meaning those with superior powers or abilities who do not make any effort to please.

  14. object: object of affection, or of wooing.

  15. such an imagination has crossed me: such an idea has occurred to me.

  16. Because of the strict rules and restraints governing relations between the sexes, especially if unmarried, even a moderate friendliness could encourage its recipient to imagine that the other person is romantically interested. For this reason people needed to be very careful in their behavior.

  17. This is the first warning Emma has received regarding herself and Mr. Elton. Mr. Knightley, who often counsels Emma, delivered an earlier warning about Mr. Elton and Harriet, but has said nothing since then, probably because his anger at Emma over Robert Martin has kept him away from her in recent weeks, when she has been most active in her encouragement of Mr. Elton’s affection for Harriet.

  18. either: any. The term could be used then for more than two items.r />
  19. The Woodhouses’ carriage is most likely a chaise or a chariot, enclosed carriages with a single seat that could accommodate three people at the most, for with only Emma and Mr. Woodhouse they would not need a larger, more expensive one. John and Isabella probably own a coach, a carriage with two facing seats that can accommodate six people, due to the size of their family. It could convey the entire party, but Mr. Woodhouse is probably unwilling to go in any carriage but his own. In this case, for the sake of greater comfort only Mr. Woodhouse and Isabella are going in his carriage and Emma, John Knightley, and, shortly, Mr. Elton are going in the larger coach. For pictures of a chaise and a coach, see below and this page.

  20. abroad: outside the house, out of doors.

  21. purchase: cost, effort.

  22. Evening clothes were notably thinner than everyday clothes; in the case of women they also exposed more of the skin. This was partly because delicate fabrics were perceived as more elegant and partly because evening gatherings would usually be accompanied by stronger heating and lighting than normal. For examples of evening clothes from the time, see this page and this page.

  A chaise. It could seat three people inside.

  [From G. A. Thrupp, History of Coaches (London, 1877), p. 77]

  [List of Illustrations]

  23. There would be two horses for each carriage, and two servants for each: one to drive and the other, most likely a footman, to open the door at each end and help the passengers, especially the ladies, enter and exit. Carriages were raised above the ground and had steps that needed to be lowered to provide access.

  24. This is an example of how John Knightley does not receive useful corrections from his wife. In this case, with no one to counter his ill humor, for it would be difficult for his sister-in-law to do so, he wallows in it, preparing the way for a distinctly unhelpful action once at the Westons.