Climbing Up to Glory

by Wilbert L. Jenkins

  115 Davis, A Travel Guide, 107-8, 169.

  116 Lester C. Lamon, Blacks in Tennessee, 1791-1970 (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1981), 41; Butler, The Distinctive Black College, 18; Rayford W. Logan, Howard University: The First Hundred Years, 1867-1967 (New York: New York University Press, 1968), 18, 20; Clarence A. Bacote, The Story of Atlanta University: A Century of Service, 1865-1965 (Atlanta, GA: Atlanta University 1969), 16-17; Robert Francis Engs, Freedom’s First Generation: Black Hampton, Virginia, 1861-1890 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1979), 142; Adele Logan Alexander, Ambiguous Lives: Free Women of Color in Rural Georgia, 17891879 (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1991), 170; Clarice T. Campbell and Oscar Allan Rogers, Jr., Mississippi: The View from Tougaloo (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1979), 6-7.

  117 Davis, A Travel Guide, 159.

  118 Alexander, Ambiguous Lives, 170; Rogers, Mississippi, 14; Davis, A Travel Guide, 159; Hildebrand, The Times Were Strange, 62-63.

  119 Logan, Howard University, 12-14; Davis, A Travel Guide, 169; Lamon, Blacks in Tennessee, 41-42.

  120 Davis, A Travel Guide, 167-68, 192-93.

  121 Engs, Freedom’s First Generation, 149-50.

  122 Bacote, The Story of Atlanta University, 37; Butler, The Distinctive Black College, 22-23.

  123 Engs, Freedom’s First Generation, 143-45; August Meier, Negro Thought in America, 1880-1915: Racial Ideologies in the Age of Booker T. Washington (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 1963), 91.

  124 Logan, Howard University, 25.

  125 Dorothy Sterling, ed., We Are Your Sisters: Black Women in the Nineteenth Century (New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 1984), 406.

  126 Jennifer Lund Smith, “The Ties That Bind: Educated African- American Women in Post-Emancipation Atlanta,” in John C. Inscoe, ed., Georgia in Black and White: Explorations in the Race Relations of a Southern State, 1865-1950 (Athens and London: University of Georgia Press, 1994), 95-97, 99.

  127 Engs, Freedom’s First Generation, 147.

  128 Alexander, Ambiguous Lives, 173-75.

  129 Logan, Howard University, 36-38.

  130 Hildebrand, The Times Were Strange, 62.

  131 Ibid., 63.

  132 Edwin S. Redkey, ed., A Grand Army of Black Men: Letters from African-American Soldiers in the Union Army, 1861-1865 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 222-23.

  133 Lamon, Blacks in Tennessee, 42.

  134 Calculated from the U.S. Bureau of the Census, Tenth, Eleventh, and Twelfth Censuses; Jenkins, Seizing the New Day, 91.

  CHAPTER SEVEN

  1 John B. Boles, “Evangelical Protestantism in the Old South: From Religious Dissent to Cultural Dominance,” in Charles R. Wilson, ed., Religion in the South (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1985), 30-32; Wilson Fallin Jr., The African-American Church in Birmingham, Alabama, 1815-1963: A Shelter in the Storm (New York and London: Garland, 1997), 10.

  2 Fallin, The African-American Church, 9.

  3 Allan D. Charles, “Black-White Relations in an Antebellum Church in the Carolina Upcountry,” South Carolina Historical Magazine, 89, no. 4 (October 1988): 220-22.

  4 George P. Rawick, ed., The American Slave: A Composite Autobiography (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1977), Vol. 7, Mississippi Narratives, Part 2, 345.

  5 Ibid., Vol. 3, Georgia Narratives, Part 1, 219.

  6 Ibid., Vol. 3, Georgia Narratives, Part 1, 198.

  7 Ibid., Vol. 1, Alabama Narratives, 176.

  8 Ibid., Vol. 3, Georgia Narratives, Part 1, 92.

  9 Ibid., Vol. 3, Georgia Narratives, Part 1, 238.

  10 Fallin, The African-American Church, 11.

  11 Rawick, ed., The American Slave, Vol. 6, Mississippi Narratives, Part 1, 123-24.

  12 Ibid., Vol. 8, Mississippi Narratives, Part 3, 845.

  13 Ibid., Vol. 8, Mississippi Narratives, Part 3, 1221.

  14 Albert J. Raboteau, Slave Religion: The “Invisible Institution” in the Antebellum South (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1978), 293.

  15 Rawick, ed., The American Slave, Vol. 3, Texas Narratives, Part 2, 555-56.

  16 Raboteau, Slave Religion, 291-92.

  17 Rawick, ed., The American Slave, Vol. 7, Mississippi Narratives, Part 2, 744.

  18 Ibid., Vol. 3, Georgia Narratives, Part 1, 26.

  19 Ibid., Vol. 7, Mississippi Narratives, Part 2, 757.

  20 Ibid., Vol. 3, Georgia Narratives, Part 1, 258.

  21 Ibid., Vol. 7, Mississippi Narratives, Part 2, 595.

  22 Ibid., Vol. 3, Georgia Narratives, Part 1, 7-8.

  23 Ibid., Vol. 6, Mississippi Narratives, Part 1, 202.

  24 Joel Williamson, After Slavery: The Negro in South Carolina during Reconstruction, 1861-1877 (Hanover, NH, and London: University Press of New England, 1990), 197; Eric Foner, Reconstruction: America’s Unfinished Revolution, 1863-1877 (New York: Harper and Row, 1988), 91.

  25 Foner, Reconstruction, 91.

  26 Jacqueline Baldwin Walker, “Blacks in North Carolina during Reconstruction” (Ph.D. diss., Duke University, 1979), 150.

  27 Arnold H. Taylor, Travail and Triumph: Black Life and Culture in the South since the Civil War (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1976), 146.

  28 Donna Johanna Benson, “‘Before I Be a Slave’: A Social Analysis of the Black Struggle for Freedom in North Carolina, 1860-1865” (Ph.D. diss., Duke University, 1984), 225.

  29 John Hope Franklin and Alfred A. Moss Jr., From Slavery to Freedom: A History of African Americans, 7th rev. ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1994), 231; Taylor, Travail and Triumph, 146.

  30 Benson, “ ‘Before I Be a Slave,’ ” 225.

  31 Taylor, Travail and Triumph, 146, 147.

  32 Benson, “ ‘Before I Be a Slave,’ ” 224.

  33 Ibid.

  34 August Meier and Elliott Rudwick, From Plantation to Ghetto: An Interpretive History of American Blacks, 3d rev. ed. (New York: Hill and Wang, 1976), 174.

  35 Walker, “Blacks in North Carolina,” 148.

  36 Franklin and Moss, From Slavery to Freedom, 232.

  37 Foner, Reconstruction, 92.

  38 Taylor, Travail and Triumph, 147.

  39 James M. Smallwood, Time of Hope, Time of Despair: Black Texans during Reconstruction (Port Washington, NY: Kennikat Press, 1981), 106.

  40 Foner, Reconstruction, 90; Armstead L. Robinson, “Plans Dat Comed from God: Institution Building and the Emergence of Black Leadership in Reconstruction Memphis,” in Donald G. Nieman, ed., Church and Community among Black Southerners, 1865-1900 (New York and London: Garland, 1994), 87; Hampton Institute, The Negro in Virginia: Compiled by Workers of the Writers’ Program of the Work Projects Administration in the State of Virginia (New York: Hastings House, 1940), 247-48.

  41 Kenneth M. Hamilton, Black Towns and Profit: Promotion and Development in the Trans-Appalachian West, 1877-1915 (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1991), 17.

  42 Smallwood, Time of Hope, Time of Despair, 101.

  43 Ruthe Winegarten, Black Texas Women: 150 Years of Trial and Triumph (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1995), 61.

  44 Ibid.

  45 Lenwood G. Davis, A Travel Guide to Black Historical Sites and Landmarks in North Carolina (Winston-Salem, NC: Bandit Books, 1991), 17.

  46 Fallin, The African-American Church, 13-14.

  47 Hampton Institute, The Negro in Virginia, 248.

  48 Fallin, The African-American Church, 14.

  49 Smallwood, Time of Hope, Time of Despair, 105.

  50 Ibid., 100-101.

  51 Ibid., 101.

  52 Fallin, The African-American Church, 13.

  53 Winegarten, Black Texas Women, 61.

  54 Robinson, “Plans Dat Comed from God,” 88; Kathleen C. Berkeley, “Colored Ladies Also Contributed: Black Women’s Activities from Benevolence to Social Welfare, 1866-1896,” in Nieman, ed., Church and Community, 329.

  55 Wilbert L. Jenkins , Seizing the New Day: African Americans in Post-Civil War C
harleston (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1998), 119.

  56 J. W. Alvord, Letters from the South Relating to the Condition of Freedmen Addressed to Major General O. O. Howard (Washington, DC: Howard University Press, 1870), 24.

  57 Hampton Institute, The Negro in Virginia, 250.

  58 William E. Montgomery, Under Their Own Vine and Fig Tree: The African-American Church in the South, 1865-1900 (Baton Rouge and London: Louisiana State University Press, 1993), 304-5.

  59 Ibid., 107-8.

  60 Carl Schurz, Report on the Condition of the South (New York: Arno Press and New York Times, 1969, Reprint), 26.

  61 Benson, “ ‘Before I Be a Slave,’ ” 223.

  62 J. T. Trowbridge, The South: A Tour of Its Battlefields and Ruined Cities, A Journey through the Desolated States, And Talks with the People (Hartford, CT: L. Stebbins, 1866), 454.

  63 Hollis R. Lynch, ed., The Black Urban Condition: A Documentary History , 1866-1971 (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Company, 1973), 6.

  64 C. Vann Woodward, ed., After the War: A Tour of the Southern States, 1865-1866 (By Whitelaw Reid) (New York: Harper and Row, 1965), 100.

  65 Montgomery, Under Their Own Vine and Fig Tree, 275-76.

  66 Ibid.

  67 John W. Blassingame, Black New Orleans, 1860-1880 (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1973), 151.

  68 Ibid., 151-52; Montgomery, Under Their Own Vine and Fig Tree, 292.

  69 Leon F. Litwack, Been in the Storm So Long: The Aftermath of Slavery (New York: Vintage Books, 1979), 467.

  70 Joe M. Richardson, Christian Reconstruction: The American Missionary Association and Southern Blacks, 1861-1890 (Athens and London: University of Georgia Press, 1986), 199.

  71 Montgomery, Under Their Own Vine and Fig Tree, 288.

  72 E. Franklin Frazier, The Negro Church in America (New York: Schocken Books, 1974), 40; Peter J. Rachleff, Black Labor in the South: Richmond, Virginia , 1865-1890 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1984), 23; John W. Blassingame, “Before the Ghetto: The Making of the Black Community in Savannah, Georgia, 1865-1880,” in Nieman, ed., Church and Community, 11-12; William L. Barney, The Passage of the Republic: An Interdisciplinary History of Nineteenth-Century America (Lexington, MA: D. C. Heath and Company, 1987), 249-50; Foner, Reconstruction, 92.

  73 Minutes of Morris Street Baptist Church, April 1, 1867.

  74 Rawick, ed., The American Slave, Vol. 6, Mississippi Narratives, Part 1, 30.

  75 Rachleff, Black Labor in the South, 23.

  76 Rawick, ed., The American Slave, Vol. 10, Mississippi Narratives, Part 5, 2291.

  77 Montgomery, Under Their Own Vine and Fig Tree, 293-94, 302-3.

  78 Joe A. Mobley, James City: A Black Community in North Carolina, 18631900 (Raleigh: North Carolina Division of Archives and History, 1981), 75.

  79 Montgomery, Under Their Own Vine and Fig Tree, 302-3.

  80 Winegarten, Black Texas Women, 61-62.

  81 Jenkins, Seizing the New Day, 128.

  82 Marion B. Lucas, A History of Blacks in Kentucky: From Slavery to Segregation, 1760-1891 (Lexington: Kentucky Historical Society, 1992), 1:163-64.

  83 Montgomery, Under Their Own Vine and Fig Tree, 300.

  84 Lucas, A History of Blacks in Kentucky, 1:169.

  85 Berkeley, “Colored Ladies Also Contributed,” in Nieman, ed., Church and Community, 327-28.

  86 Lucas, A History of Blacks in Kentucky, 1:199-200.

  87 Blassingame, “Before the Ghetto,” in Nieman, ed., Church and Community , 13.

  88 Montgomery, Under Their Own Vine and Fig Tree, 299.

  89 Lucas, A History of Blacks in Kentucky, 1:200; Montgomery, Under Their Own Vine and Fig Tree, 300.

  90 Blassingame, Black New Orleans, 170; Henry M. Christman, ed., The South As It Is: 1865-1866 (By John Richard Dennett) (New York: Viking Press, 1965), 304; Herbert G. Gutman, The Black Family in Slavery and Freedom, 17501925 (New York: Pantheon Books, 1976), 227-28.

  91 Montgomery, Under Their Own Vine and Fig Tree, 261; Berkeley, “Colored Ladies Also Contributed,” in Nieman, ed., Church and Community, 337, 340.

  92 For an excellent coverage of the black church today, consult C. Eric Lincoln and Lawrence H. Mamiya, The Black Church in the African American Experience (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 1990).

  93 Lucas, A History of Blacks in Kentucky, 1:224-25.

  94 Jenkins, Seizing the New Day, 129-32.

  95 Taylor, Travail and Triumph, 13.

  96 Frazier, The Negro Church, 47-48; Foner, Reconstruction, 93.

  97 Edmund L. Drago, Black Politicians and Reconstruction in Georgia: A Splendid Failure (Athens and London: University of Georgia Press, 1992), 66-100.

  98 Jacqueline Jones, Labor of Love, Labor of Sorrow: Black Women, Work, and the Family, from Slavery to the Present (New York: Vintage Books, 1985), 67.

  99 Jualynne Dobson, “Nineteenth-Century A.M.E. Preaching Women: Cutting Edge of Women’s Inclusion in Church Policy,” in Hilah E. Thomas and Rosemary S. Keller, eds., Women in New Worlds (Nashville: Abingdon, 1981), 277-83.

  100 Ibid., 283-85.

  101 Jacquelyn Grant, “Black Women and the Church,” in Gloria T. Hull, Patricia B. Scott, and Barbara Smith, eds., All the Women Are White, All the Blacks Are Men, But Some of Us Are Brave (New York: The Feminist Press, 1982), 143-44.

  102 Dobson, “Nineteenth-Century A.M.E. Preaching Women,” in Thomas and Keller, eds., Women in New Worlds, 284, 285, 288.

  103 For an excellent discussion of the trials and tribulations that African-American women preachers continue to go through in black churches, see Bettye Collier-Thomas, Daughters of Thunder: Black Women Preachers and Their Sermons, 1850-1979 (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1998).

  CHAPTER EIGHT

  1 John Hope Franklin, Reconstruction: After the Civil War (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1961), 88-92; Mary F. Berry and John W. Blassingame, Long Memory: The Black Experience in America (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982), 152-54; John Hope Franklin and Alfred A. Moss Jr., From Slavery to Freedom: A History of African Americans , 7th rev. ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1994), 239-43; Arnold H. Taylor, Travail and Triumph: Black Life and Culture in the South since the Civil War (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1976), 15-16.

  2 Joseph T. Glatthaar, Forged in Battle: The Civil War Alliance of Black Soldiers and White Officers (New York: Meridian Books, 1990), 249; Eric Foner, Reconstruction: America’s Unfinished Revolution, 1863-1877 (New York: Harper and Row, 1988), 472.

  3 See, for example, Edmund L. Drago, Black Politicians and Reconstruction in Georgia: A Splendid Failure (Athens and London: University of Georgia Press, 1992); Thomas Holt, Black over White: Negro Political Leadership in South Carolina during Reconstruction (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1977); Peter Kolchin, First Freedom: The Responses of Alabama’s Blacks to Emancipation and Reconstruction (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1972).

  4 Taylor, Travail and Triumph, 18.

  5 W. E. B. DuBois, Black Reconstruction in America, 1860-1880 (New York: Atheneum, 1969), 417-25; Kenneth M. Stampp, The Era of Reconstruction, 1865-1877 (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1965), 177-80.

  6 New York Times, April 24, May 2, May 9, 1867; New York Daily Tribune, May 4, 1867; Wilbert L. Jenkins, Seizing the New Day: African Americans in Post-Civil War Charleston (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1998), 143-45; John W. Blassingame, Black New Orleans, 1860-1880 (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1973), 189-90; Peter J. Rachleff, Black Labor in the South: Richmond, Virginia, 1865-1890 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1984), 42; Taylor, Travail and Triumph, 49.

  7 Dorothy Sterling, ed., We Are Your Sisters: Black Women in the Nineteenth Century (New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 1984), 254.

  8 Willard B. Gatewood, “The Remarkable Misses Rollin: Black Women in Reconstruction South Carolina,” South Carolina Historical Magazine 92, no. 3 (July 1991): 172, 177.

&n
bsp; 9 Colin A. Palmer, Passageways: An Interpretive History of Black America, 2 vols. (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1998), 2:121.

  10 Ruthe Winegarten, Black Texas Women: 150 Years of Trial and Triumph (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1995), 73-74.

  11 Sterling, ed., We Are Your Sisters, 363-64.