Climbing Up to Glory

by Wilbert L. Jenkins

  There is a wealth of fine literature on black education. Those interested in the antebellum period in the South should consult Janet Cornelius, “We Slipped and Learned to Read: Slave Accounts of the Literacy Process, 1830-1865,” Phylon 44, no. 2 (September 1983): 171-86. The definitive work is James D. Anderson, The Education of Blacks in the South, 1860-1935 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1988), which offers a detailed analysis of the efforts of blacks to establish and maintain schools. A chapter by Herbert Gutman titled “Schools for Freedom: The Post-Emancipation Origins of Afro-American Education,” in Ira Berlin, ed., Herbert Gutman, Power and Culture: Essays on the American Working Class (New York: New Press, 1987), 260-97, also highlights the efforts by blacks to support their own educational endeavors. The establishment of historically black colleges and universities are nicely dealt with in Clarence A. Bacote, The Story of Atlanta University: A Century of Service, 1865-1965 (Atlanta, GA: Atlanta University, 1969); Rayford W. Logan, Howard University: The First Hundred Years, 1867-1967 (New York: New York University Press, 1968); and Robert Francis Engs, Freedom’s First Generation: Black Hampton, Virginia, 1861-1890 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1979).

  Several excellent works on black religion exist. Although dated, E. Franklin Frazier, The Negro Church in America (New York: Schocken Books, 1974), and Carter G. Woodson, The History of the Negro Church (Washington, DC: Associated Publishers, 1921), are both still solid. Wilson Fallin Jr., The African-American Church in Birmingham, Alabama, 1815-1963: A Shelter in the Storm (New York: Garland, 1997), provides good coverage of the black church on the local level. Reginald F. Hildebrand, The Times Were Strange and Stirring: Methodist Preachers and the Crisis of Emancipation (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1995), is the best book on black Methodist preachers during emancipation. William E. Montgomery, Under Their Own Vine and Fig Tree: The African-American Church in the South, 1865-1900 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1993), is probably the best book on the black church during emancipation and Reconstruction.

  Although Thomas Holt, Black over White: Negro Political Leadership in South Carolina during Reconstruction (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1977), is by far the most thorough work on black politicians during Reconstruction, there are many fine works on the subject that proved beneficial to this study. For example, see Edmund L. Drago, Black Politicians and Reconstruction in Georgia: A Splendid Failure (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1992); Howard N. Rabinowitz, ed., Southern Black Leaders of the Reconstruction Era (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1982); and Peggy Lamson, The Glorious Failure: Black Congressman Robert Brown Elliott and the Reconstruction in South Carolina (New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 1973).

  INDEX

  Abbott, Anderson

  Adams, Henry

  Addeman, J. M.

  Adoption

  African Methodist Episcopal (AME) Church; General Conference

  African Methodist Episcopal Zion (AME Zion) Church

  CSS Alabama

  Albright, George Washington

  Alcoholism

  Alford, Barney

  Allen, Benjamin

  Allen, Hannah

  Allen, John

  Allen, Rachel

  Allen, Thomas

  Allen, W. B.

  Allen University

  Alston, Miss

  Alvord, John W.

  American Equal Rights Association (AERA)

  American Medical Association

  American Missionary Association (AMA); founds or purchases colleges

  American Woman Suffrage Association

  Ames, Alexander

  Ames, Mary

  Amnesty Proclamation of

  Anderson, James

  Anderson, John P.

  Anderson, Louisa

  Anderson, Milly

  Anderson, Robert J.

  Andersonville Prison

  Andrews, Eliza

  Andrews, Sidney

  Anthony, Susan B.

  Anti-Slavery Reporter

  Antonine. C.

  Apprenticeship

  Armstrong, Jennie

  Armstrong, Samuel Chapman

  Army, Confederate: debate on arming African Americans; realities harsh for; recruits in South

  Army, Union: black men forced to become laborers for; blacks joining

  Ashley, James

  Ashmore, Charlie

  Ates, Caroline

  Atkins, Lizzie

  Atlanta University

  Attucks, Crispus

  Augusta, Alexander T.

  Austin, Hattie

  Ayers, James T.

  Bailey, Tolbert

  Baker, Hager Ann

  Baker, Lizzie

  Baker, Wallace

  Baltimore, William

  Banks

  Banks, Anna DeCosta

  Banks, Elizabeth

  Banks, Evangeline

  Banks, John

  Banks, N. P.

  Banks, Sammy

  Baptists and Baptist Church

  Barber, Ed

  Barber, Mollie

  Barber-Scotia College

  Barbour, Mary

  Barksdale, Penny

  Bates, Millie

  Beals, Harriet

  Beasley, Robert

  Beckett, Harrison

  Beecher, Frances

  Beecher, Henry Ward

  Beecher, James

  Bell, Charlie

  Bell, Laura

  Benedict, Augustus W.

  Benedict College

  Benevolent and aid societies. See also Freedmen’s Bureau

  Bennett College

  Berry, Dick

  Best, Nathan

  Black, Dan

  Black, Jessie

  Black, Sarah Ann

  Black, Tamsey

  Blackley, Annie

  Blocker, Irena

  Body servants

  Boggan, Manda

  Boles, John

  Bolton, James

  Bonner, Lewis

  Boone, Andrew

  Booth, Ella

  Booth, John Wilkes

  Border states

  Bormer, Betty

  Boston Massacre

  Botume, Elizabeth Hyde

  Bowles, John R.

  Bowser, Elizabeth

  Boyd, Belle

  Bradford, Elodga

  Bradley, Edmond

  Bradley, Solomon

  Bradshaw, Tillman

  Bratcher, Minerva

  Bremer, Fredrika

  Brewer, Dora

  Brittian, James

  Brock, John C.

  Brooke, Edward

  Brooks, Dandridge

  Brooks, James

  Brooks, William

  Brown, Caesar

  Brown, Charlotte

  Brown, Clara

  Brown, Dinah

  Brown, Emily

  Brown, F. H.

  Brown, George

  Brown, James

  Brown, John

  Brown, Joseph

  Brown, Mary

  Brown, Mary Jane

  Brown, Washington

  Brown Fellowship Society of Charleston

  Bruce, Blanch K.

  Bryant, David

  Bryant, Furney

  Bryant, William

  Buchanan, Alfred

  Buchanan, Harriet

  Buffalo Soldiers

  Bullitt, Sandy

  Burbridge, Stephen G.

  Burnside, John

  Burrell, Wesley

  Burson, Sebe

  Burton, Annie L.

  Burton, Martha

  Businesses, black; failed

  Butler, Benjamin

  Butler, Gabe

  Butler, Henry

  Byrd, Dave

  Cain, Richard H.

  Calloway, Jane Johnson

  Camp Nelson

  Cancer, Polly Turner

  Cardozo, Francis L.

  Cardozo, T. W.

  Cardozo, Thomas


  Carey, Mary Ann Shadd

  Carpenters

  Carruthers, Richard

  Carter, Anthony E.

  Carter, Cato

  Carter, Lucy

  Carter, Nelson

  Caulkers

  Chamberlain, Daniel

  Chapman, Hannah

  Charleston, South Carolina; churches in; liberation and Union occupation of; schools in

  Charleston Mercury

  Chase, G. Thurston

  Chase, Jordan

  Chase, Sarah

  Cheatham, John J.

  Cherokee freedmen; struggle of

  Cherokee Nation

  Chesapeake Marine Railroad and Dry Dock Company

  Chester, Thomas Morris

  Chestnut, A. J.

  Chickasaw Nation

  Child labor. See also Apprenticeship

  Children, black: impact of war on; punishment of; white children teaching. See also Families

  Childs, Mary

  Child support

  Chiles, George Washington

  Chiriqui colonization scheme

  Choctaw Nation

  Christian Index

  Christian Recorder

  Churches; antebellum; biracial; blacks’ struggle to establish and maintain; burnings of; denominations attracting blacks; discipline of; impact on politics; as institution central to black community; segregation in; and slavery; Southern white opposition to black; support for education; women’s struggle to gain acceptance into ministry

  Cities and towns: migration to; urban former slaves. See also Migration

  Civil and political rights; blacks’ struggle to hold onto. See also Social equality; Voting rights

  Civil Rights Act of

  Civil Rights Act of

  Civil War: battles, beginning of; efforts to assist Union cause short of fighting; Lincoln on objective of

  Claflin College

  Clark, Indian

  Clark, Rena

  Clay, Henry

  Cleburne, Patrick R.

  Clothing

  Cobb, Howell

  Coffin, Charles

  Coleman, Eli

  Coleman, Peter

  Coley Annie

  Colleges and universities, formation of black

  Collier, Holt

  Colombia

  Colonization, of slaves and free blacks

  Colored Methodist Episcopal Church

  Colson, Arthur

  Colyer, Vincent

  Communities, black; problems with; steps to promote interests of

  Confederate cause, blacks aiding; reasons for

  Confederate States of America; debate on arming African Americans; formation of

  Confiscation Acts

  Congressmen. See Politicians

  Conservatives: black(see also Democrats); increasing power in 1870s, 228

  Contraband Relief Association

  Contrabands. See also Confederate cause, blacks aiding

  Conway, Thomas W.

  Cook, Jerry

  Cooke, Major

  Cooley, Rossa

  Cooper, Charlie

  Cooper, Frisby

  Cornell, Hiram

  Corporal punishment

  Courtship

  Cox, Elijah

  Crane, Mary

  Crawford, Kate

  Crawford, Samuel F.

  Crittenden, John J.

  Curtis, Mattie

  Daffin, Sallie

  Dallas, Moses

  Dantzler, Juda

  Daughters of Zion

  Davenport, Carey

  Davenport, Charlie

  Davidson, W. M.

  Davis, Jefferson; blacks’ attitude toward; military policies and orders

  Davis, Lizzie

  Davis, Tob

  Davis, William Roscoe

  Davison, Eli

  Davison, Elige

  Dawkins, Jake

  Dawson, Mollie

  Day, Annie

  Day, Madison

  Debro, Sarah

  DeGrasse, John V.

  Delany, Martin R.

  DeLarge, Robert C.

  Democrats, black; violence between black Republicans and. See also Politicians

  Deportation. See also Colonization

  Depression of

  Desertion, among black troops

  Deveaux

  Dickson, Amanda

  Dickson, David

  Dillard, General

  Discrimination, struggle against

  Divorce. See also Marriage(s), and separation

  Dixon, Sally

  Dockworkers

  Dodson, Jack

  Domestic violence

  Donald, David H.

  Doolin-Mason, Lena

  Dorsey, Decatur

  Dorsey, Nelson

  Douglass, Frederick; and blacks in military; education; and emancipation; on Lincoln; on Northern benevolent societies

  Douglass, H. Ford

  Downing, George

  Drago, Edmund

  Dred Scott Decision

  Drumgold, Kate

  Drunkenness, among black troops

  DuBois, W. E. B.

  Dumas, F. E.

  Duncan, Clara

  Dunn, Lucy

  Dunn, Oscar

  Durham, Tempie

  Easley, Elizabeth

  Eaton, John

  Economic independence; efforts to achieve; land ownership and

  Education, black; and efforts to free blacks; financing; formation of black colleges and universities; motivations for obtaining; parental concerns regarding; punishment for obtaining; sacrifices made for; societies/organizations to promote; Southern white opposition to; white children teaching black children. See also Schools

  Edwards, Ann

  Edward Waters College

  Elder, Larry

  Eldridge, J. E.

  Ellington, Betty Ann

  Ellington, Harry

  Elliott, Robert Brown

  Ellis, William

  Elmore, Grace

  Else, Amy

  Emancipation: announcement of news of; and arming of slaves; joy over newfound status; legislative efforts toward(see also Confiscation Acts); Lincoln’s scheme for; slaves staying versus leaving following. See also Lincoln, Abraham, and black freedom

  Emancipation amendment. See Thirteenth Amendment

  Emancipation celebrations; throughout Reconstruction period

  Emancipation Proclamation; and Border states; response to; significance; and Union military

  Emigrationist movements. See also Colonization; Migration

  Employment; freedmen’s efforts to secure

  Enlisting in military, blacks; blacks’ reasons for; Confederate enlistment bill of 1865, 75; efforts to stop; forced; reasons for opposition to; traumatic experience of; violence done to blacks for. See also Confiscation Acts

  Enlistment Act of

  Episcopal Church

  Epps, Tom

  Equal Rights League

  Erwing, Cynthia

  Espionage

  Everett, Martha

  Families, black; of enlistees; forced separations; quest to free, from white control; reunion with lost ones; steps to promote interest of; unknowing marriage between members

  Family: attachment and devotion to; as sacred institution

  Family servants

  Fayetteville State College

  Fee, John G.

  Felder, Sarah

  Field slaves

  Fields, Jackson

  Fields, Sarah

  Fifteenth Amendment; struggle for

  Fillmore, Millard

  Fisk Jubilee Singers

  Fisk University

  Fitzgerald, Robert

  Fleming, George

  Floyd, Sylvia

  Ford, Laura

  Forrest, Nathan Bedford

  Fort Clark

  Forten, Charlotte

  Forten, Lottie

  Fort Jackson

  Fort Morgan

  Fort Pillow massacre
of

  Fortress Monroe

  Fort Sumter

  Foster, Abby Kelley

  Foster, Sarah Jane

  Foster, Stephen

  Fourteenth Amendment

  Fowler, Mat

  Fox, Colonel

  Frankel, Noralee

  Franklin, Richard

  Franks, Dora

  Fraser, Bella

  Frazier, Julia

  Freedmen: black efforts to alleviate sufferings of; postwar problems facing; reasons for remaining in South; sent back to plantations

  Freedmen and Soldiers Relief Association of Washington

  Freedmen’s Bureau; and education

  Freedmen’s Savings Bank

  Freeman, David

  Freeman, Rose

  Frémont, John C.

  Fry David

  Fugitive Slave Law

  Fuller, Nat

  Gaines, Wesley

  Gambling, among black troops

  Ganaway, Charles

  Gardner, James

  Garnet, Henry Highland

  Garrison, William Lloyd

  Gender roles

  Georgia Educational Association

  Gibbs, Jonathan C.

  Gibbs, Oscar

  Gibson, Julia

  Gill, Andrew Jackson

  Gill, James

  Gilmore, Brawley

  Gladdy, Mary

  Glatthaar, Joseph

  Gleaves, Richard

  Glover, Martha

  Goaldsby, Henry

  Gooch, Henrietta

  Gooding, James Henry

  Gould, John

  Government assistance

  Graham, Anna

  Grainer, George

  Grant, Aaron

  Grant, Austin

  Grant, Susan

  Grant, Ulysses S.

  Greeley, Horace

  Green, Ashbury

  Green, Marie Aurelia

  Green, Virginia C.

  Greenwall, Henry

  Gregg, J. Irvin

  Gregory, John

  Grey, Maria

  Grey, Philip

  Grey, Willie Ann

  Griffin, Madison

  Griffing, Josephine

  Grimball, John Berkeley

  Grimké, Francis

  Gurney, William

  Haiti

  Hale, Edward Everett

  Hall, Captain

  Hall, James Henry

  Hall, Prince

  Hamelton, Warren

  Hamlin, Ken

  Hampton, Wade

  Hampton Institute

  Hanon, George Buck

  Harding, Mr.

  Harper, Frances Ellen Watkins

  Harper, Pierce

  Harris, Blanche

  Harris, David