Against Fairness
Page 24
Bondone, Giotto di, 50f
Boyd, Robert, 180n1
Boyle, Robert, 52
Brookings Institute, 93
Brosnan, Sarah, 40
Brown, Harold I., 182n14
Brown Center Report on Education, 93
Brown v. Board of Education, 82
Buddha (Siddhattha Gotama), 3–4, 6, 86, 107, 188n13
Buddha: A Beginner’s Guide (Asma), 188n12
Buffet, Warren, 99
Cain and Abel story, 86, 88, 172n13
Calabrese, Frank, Jr., 34–35
Cambodia, 97–98
capuchin monkeys, 40
care-based ethics, 195n11
CARE system, 26, 27, 145, 174n5, 178n34, 181n11, 185n6
Cash, Johnny, 151
categorical imperative, 63, 73, 108, 181n12, 182n13
Chace, William M., 191n5
character and favoritism, 159–61, 195n12
charity to strangers, 15, 99, 121, 163, 165
Chicago: dominance of ethnic neighborhoods, 127; nepotistic favoritism in politics of, 183n17; positive forms of favoritism in immigrant Mexican populations, 128–29
children and favoritism. See development of fairness in children
Chinese favoritism: the Chinese culture as evidence that secular favoritism works, 106; concept of “face” in the culture, 103–4; the Confucian hierarchy of values, 15–17; deference to others based on a social hierarchy, 104–5, 106, 187n8; embracing of personal connections, 13; emphasis on public ethics and moral heroes, 105–6; evidence that secular favoritism works, 106; exercising favoritism as something that benefits the acting person, 106; favoritism’s dominance in Confucian culture, 13–14, 102; filial piety and ethics, 100–101; importance of family in the sociopolitical culture, 100–102; personal nature of guanxi favoritism, 102–3; some problems with the nepotistic world of bias, 187n9
Christianity, 5, 15
Cicero, 20, 84–85
“Circles” by Google, 167
Civilization and Its Discontents (Freud), 166
Clinton, Bill, 91
Clinton, Hillary, 131
Before Color Prejudice: The Ancient View of Blacks (Snowden), 190n31
communitarianism, 193n27
Confucian values and favoritism, 13–17, 102
Confucius (Kongzi), 15–17, 100, 105, 112
Constantine the Great, 113
Corning, Peter, 7, 172n9
corruption: agent-centered power and, 112; Americans’ view of power and, 111; in Chicago, 183n17; non-Western cultures’ views of, 14, 172n18; politicians’ devotion to friends and, 63–64; public versus private power, 189–90n24; reducing corruption by reducing greed, 122; Westerners’ view that nepotistic favoritism is corrupt, 110–15
Cosmides, Leda, 178n34
Cyrus the Great, 113
Daley, Richard M., 183n17
Damasio, Antonio, 177n26
Daoism, 16
Darwin, Charles, 2, 171n7
Darwinian natural selection, 36, 44
Dawkins, Richard, 36
Declaration of Independence, 90
democracy: correlation with corruption and economics, 189–90n24; grid of impartiality and, 61–62, 182n15; philosophical views of egalitarianism and, 61–62, 91, 111, 119; reasons for unlikelihood of in Chinese cultures, 189n22
Deng Xiaoping, 192n26
Descartes, René, 52, 181n5
de Tocqueville, Alexis, 60
development of fairness in children: basic elements in raising ethical kids, 74, 184n3; contemporary kids’ stories’ treatment of fairness, 79; criteria kids use to make social evaluations, 84; cultural teachings about sibling rivalry, 88; demographically based emotional foundations for morality, 89; Diversity and Equity manual in European Schools, 81–82; egalitarianism in American schools, 11, 91–95; emergence of a sense of fairness through interactions, 75–76; emotional basis of calls for fairness, 89; envy as a building block of fairness morality, 89–90, 187n26; envy as the basis for demanding equality, 85–86; envy’s motivational aspects, 86–87; equality of opportunity versus equality of outcomes, 95–96; fairness versus appreciating diversity, 80; favoritism and bias demonized as bigotry, 80, 82–85; forced-choice method of teaching values, 83–84, 185n10; generosity’s independence from fairness, 77–78; humans’ instinctual ability to feel another’s suffering, 74–75, 184–85n4; “justice and fairness” lesson plans in Texas schools, 80–81; kids’ view of fairness, 71–72; language of fairness, 77–79, 80, 185n6; merit-based concepts of fairness, 11–12, 91, 93–94; open-mindedness’s compatibility with favoritism and bias, 82–83; Plato’s observation that all people have some low impulses, 72–73; positive aspects of favoritism as noted by Cicero, 84–85; post-religious secular outlets for forbidden emotions, 89, 186n23; prevailing belief that children are prejudiced toward outgroups, 83; research showing that favoritism doesn’t always entail bigotry toward outgroups, 83–85, 185n10; role feelings play in guiding good behavior, 73–74; sharing as a major theme in children’s books and movies, 76; tendency to envy those who are closer to our own lifestyle and class, 87; transparency and honesty in Chinese schools, 92–93
De Waal, Frans, 39, 40
De Wetter, Bernard, 118
Diamond, Jared, 118
Diversity and Equity in Early Childhood Training in Europe, 81, 185n8
dualists, 175n14
Dunbar, Robin, 145
Dürer, Albrecht, 49
Durkheim, Émile, 75
Dutch republic, 48
Dworkin, Ronald, 172n12
egalitarian grid. See grid of impartiality
egalitarianism: absurdity in thinking minority groups practice egalitarian fairness, 127–28; affirmative action and, 138, 191n10; in American schools, 11, 91–95; attempt to remove personality from the rules for right and wrong, 160–61; conveyed in science, 50–53, 181n5; egalitarian ethics espoused by Singer, 141–43; egalitarian ethics in feminism, 195n11; egalitarian fairness within social groups, 42–43; egalitarian moralists’ explanation that proximity contributes to the choice of who to help, 24; focus on social hierarchy in China, 104–5; health and wellbeing of the social organism versus, 138–39, 192n14; human equality and, 9, 172nn12–13; mathematical model of, 17, 173n24; melting-pot versus multiculturalism models of, 132–33; social engineering experiments that tried to force, 45–46; typified in art, 48–50, 180nn2–3; violated by preferentially hiring kin, 58
Eighty Years’ War, 48
Electra complex, 177n24
Eliot, George, 32, 176n21
Emanuel, Rahm, 183n17
emotional contagion, 74–75, 184–85n4
emotivist ethics, 53, 181n7
Empathic Civilization, The (Rifkin), 144
empathy, 144–46
Enlightenment thinkers, 17, 49, 54, 56, 61, 62, 113, 146
envy: as the basis for demanding equality, 85–86; as a building block of fairness morality, 89–90, 187n26; motivational aspects of, 86–87; tendency to envy those who are closer to our own lifestyle and class, 87
epigenetics, 177n27
Equal Protection Clause, 135
Euthyphro, 18–20, 33, 173n28
“Evolution and Ethics” (Huxley), 171n7
Executive Order 11246, 133
Expanding Circle, The (Singer), 141, 173n2
“Exposure Effects: An Unmediated Phenomenon” (Zajonc), 176n19
“face” concept in some cultures, 103–4
fact/value distinction, 175n14
fairness: absurdity in thinking minority groups practice egalitarian fairness, 127–28; charity to strangers incorrectly called “fairness,” 163; in children (see development of fairness in children); competing concepts of equality and fairness, 10–11; conflict between fairness and friendship, 62; contextual details role in perceptions of, 65–69, 130–31, 150, 184n26, 184n30; diversity’s place in the fairness debate, 80, 137, 191–92n11; egalitarian fairness’ attempt to remove personality from the rules for right and wrong, 160–61
; egalitarian fairness within social groups, 42–43; fairness instinct demonstrated by mammals, 39–40, 179n39; favoritism/fairness divide, 6, 7, 171–72nn7–9; the Left’s belief that fairness cannot be achieved amidst favoritism, 153–54, 194n4; loyalty’s clash with, 158; meaning of, 9–10, 172nn12–13; merit-based concepts of, 11–12, 91, 93–94; mutually incompatible frameworks of fairness to all and dedication to kin, 58–59, 60; used as the language of civil and women’s rights, 126; Western culture’s development of its ideology of (see grid of impartiality)
Fair Society, The (Corning), 7, 172n9
family and favoritism. See kin selection; nepotistic favoritism; tribalism
father-baby bond. See parent-child bond
favoritism: attributed to some spiritual leaders, 3–5; bias and, 17; biology of (see biological favoritism); children and (see development of fairness in children); conflict between emotions and rational system of good, 1–3; equality and fairness as competing concepts, 10–11; favoritism/fairness divide, 6, 7, 171–72nn7–9; focus on equality of outcomes in schools, 11, 91–95; hierarchy of values, 15–17; incompatibility between spiritualism and, 5–7; mathematical model of egalitarian ethics, 17, 173n24; meaning of fairness, 9–10, 172nn12–13; meaning of nepotism, 12–14, 172n16, 172n18, 173n20; meaning of tribal, 8–9; merit-based concepts of fairness, 11–12, 91, 93–94; in non-Western cultures (see Chinese favoritism; Indian favoritism); positive aspects of favoritism as noted by Cicero, 84–85; research showing that favoritism doesn’t always entail bigotry toward outgroups, 83–85, 185n10; Socrates and Euthyphro’s dialogue about filial devotion and justice, 18–20, 173n28; toward families (see kin selection; nepotistic favoritism); in Western cultures (see grid of impartiality)
Feminine and Feminist Ethics (Tong), 195n11
Fénelon, Archbishop, 170
filial favoritism. See biological favoritism
Forer, Lois, 193n28
Freud, Sigmund, 75, 166
Friedman, Milton, 107
Fukuyama, Francis, 189n22
Galileo, 50
Gallese, Vittorio, 185n4
Gates, Bill, 99
generosity and gratitude, 158, 194–95nn10–11
Gandhi, 5–6
Ghiselin, Michael, 177n28
Gilligan, Carol, 195n11
Gini coefficient, 189–90n24
Glazer, N., 191n3
global perspectives on favoritism: agent-centered ethics, 111, 112–13; Americans’ view of power, 111; American “world-savers” couple’s Cambodia experience, 97–98; Asian cultures’ emphasis on filial piety, 110, 188–89n19; Chinese culture of favoritism (see Chinese favoritism); ethical favoritism seen as an oxymoron, 120; false dichotomy between ethics and self-interest, 113–14; favoritism philanthropy, 121; healthy forms of favoritism, 109–10; Indian culture of favoritism (see Indian favoritism); nepotism’s benefits in businesses, 114–15, 190n25; nuclear family model of effective distribution of power, 111–12, 189nn20–23; objections to Asian favoritism, 188–89n19; practice of sponsorship, 120–22; reducing corruption by reducing greed, 122; tribalism and tragedy (see tribalism); Western cultures’ view of favoritism (see grid of impartiality)
Gods Drink Whiskey, The (Asma), 188n12
Good Samaritan, 98, 163, 165
Goodwin, William, 170
Google+ project, 167
Gottlieb, Lori, 172n15
Gould, Stephen Jay, 36, 37, 178n30
gratitude, 159
Greene, Graham, 163
Greenspan, Alan, 7
grid of impartiality: absence of in Indian culture, 107, 108–9; agent-centered ethics and, 111; Americans’ view of equality, 2, 10; Aristotle’s recognition that favoritism can be ethical and reasonable, 65; belief that rational society comes from consistency in human law, 56, 182n14; contextual details role in perceptions of fairness, 65–69, 130–31, 150, 184n26, 184n30; contrast with guanxi favoritism, 102–3; egalitarianism of Europe typified in art, 48–50, 180nn2–3; emotivist ethics and the rules of morality, 53, 181n7; goal of neutrality, 56; impartial spectator idea, 53–54, 181n11; impartial spectator perspective adopted to real-life ethical questions of helping your kin, 57–60; Kant’s categorical imperative versus a hypothetical imperative, 55; Kant’s claim that good intentions outweigh other considerations, 54–55, 181n12, 182n13; line between private and public world regarding equal opportunity, 59–60, 183n18; mathematical rationality and, 64, 183n21; meant to prevent the privileges of class, race, and gender, 159–61; morality seen exclusively as the respecting of individual rights, 56–57, 182n16; mutually incompatible frameworks of fairness to all and dedication to kin, 58–59, 60, 62; nepotism in Hollywood and, 59; practical reason applied to favoritism, 65, 183n22, 184n26; pre-egalitarian approach to pictorial space and characters, 50f, 51f; rationale for nepotism for friends, 62–64; scientists’ egalitarian leveling and mechanizing of nature, 50–53, 181n5; strength of tribal instincts, 180n1; tribal nature of ancient Greek democracy, 182n15; view that commerce softens human relations, 61; view that political democracy civilized our social interactions, 61–62; Westerners’ susceptibility to the Jellyby fallacy, 98, 99, 102; Westerners’ view that nepotistic favoritism is corrupt, 110–15
ground squirrels, 36–38, 178n34
group selection, 178n33, 180n1
guanxi (connections), 102–3, 106
guojia (nation), 101–2
gweilo (foreigner), 103, 104
Habyarimana, Juvénal, 117
Haidt, Jonathan, 89, 182n16
happiness, 154–56
Harder, Bridgette Kaye, 114, 190n25
Hauser, Marc, 178n34
hedonic calculus, 54, 181n11
Hegel, Georg, 109
Henning, Alexandra, 185n10
HerreraGiron, Jacqueline, 128–30
Hesiod, 74
Hillenbrand, Laura, 133
Hobbes, Thomas, 42, 172n8
homeostasis, 31–32, 175n16, 187n26
honor, 90–91
Hoogland, John, 37
“How to Land Your Kid in Therapy” (Gottlieb), 172n15
Hume, David, 44, 53, 56, 181n7, 182n14
Huntington, Samuel P., 189n22
“Hutu 10 Commandments,” 190n27
Huxley, Thomas, 171n7
impartial spectator idea, 53–54, 57–60
imprinting, 26
In a Different Voice (Gilligan), 195n11
Indian favoritism: absence of a grid of impartiality, 107, 108–9; caste system and, 109; moral conduct based on contextual differences of value, 109–10, 188n16; sense of a “familial self,” 110; tribal family values reflected in acceptance of insider trading, 106–7
Inequality Reexamined (Sen), 172n12
infanticide by mammals, 174n10, 176–77n22
In Praise of Nepotism (Bellow), 114, 172n16
is/ought problem by Hume, 44–45
Jacobson’s organ, 28
Jellyby fallacy, 98, 99, 102
Jesus: favoritism with regard to his disciples, 3; parable about the competing concepts of equality and fairness, 10–11
Johnson, Lyndon B., 133, 191n5
Joseph, Craig, 89
Journal of the American Medical Association, 155
Judaism: filial allegiance and, 124; relationship between ethnic and religious identity in, 125–26, 190n1
junzi (superior person), 106
justice: Aristotle’s view of friendship and, 65; Aristotle’s view that bias has a role in justice, 17; care-based ethics and, 195n11; criteria kids use to make social evaluations and, 84; critiquing fairness while preserving liberal social justice, 126; elimination of personal connections from considerations of, 15, 16; elite white college-educated people’s view of, 89; empathic feelings as the basis of, 75–76; fairness viewed as fundamental to, 9; impartial spectator idea and, 53; “justice and fairness” lesson plans in Texas schools, 80–81; the Left’s view of, 153; Occupy Wall Street’s call for, 164–65; Socrates and Euthyphro’s dialogue about filial devotion and, 18�
��20, 173n28; taking context into consideration, 130–32, 147–48, 150, 184n26, 193n28
Kagame, Paul, 113
Kallenbach, Hermann, 6
Kang Xiaoguang, 189n24
Kant, Immanuel, 17, 54–55, 108, 165, 181n12, 182n13, 183n22
Kendell, Kate, 130
Kigali Memorial Centre, 116
Killen, Melanie, 185n10
“Kin” by Microsoft, 167
kin selection: biological favoritism and, 36–38, 177–78nn28–34; egalitarian fairness within social groups, 42–43, 178n33; egalitarian moralists’ explanation that proximity contributes to the choice of who to help, 24; mutually incompatible frameworks of fairness to all and dedication to kin, 58–59, 60; number limit for a stable social network of people, 145; tribal instincts and (see tribalism)
Kohlberg, Lawrence, 195n11
Kongzi (Confucius), 15–17, 100, 105
Kravinsky, Zell, 23
Kristof, Nicholas, 192n26
Lady Justice, 15, 16
La Luz, Mexico, 129
Laws of Manu (Manava Dharmasastra), 108, 109
Levy, David, 168
Life You Can Save, The (Singer), 173n3
Likert, Rensis, 156
limbic system, 41, 42f, 79, 145, 185n6
Lion King, The, 79
Little Red Hen, The, 12
Locke, John, 90
logical positivism movement, 181n7
Love and Sex with Robots (Levy), 168
loyalty: bonding with favorites and, 39; clash with fairness, 158; group success attributed to intergroup loyalty, 156; having a shared cause as an aspect of a meaningful life, 156–57; resoluteness and, 157
lying and Kant’s categorical imperative, 55
Machiavelli, 113–14
magnanimity and generosity, 158
males: father-baby bonding, 28, 174–75nn10, 11; infanticide by mammals, 174n10, 176–77n22
Mao Zedong, 45–46
Mapping the Moral Domain, 195n11
maps of inequality, 172n12
Marx, Karl, 160, 195n12
Matt, Susan J., 88