The Great Christ Comet
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At the same time, we should bear in mind that comets are somewhat individual and are capable of springing surprises on observers, for example, when they have minor or major outburst events, when they inexplicably fade or brighten,3 when their tails become disconnected, and/or when they fragment. Nevertheless, it makes most sense for us to assume that the Christ Comet’s apparition developed in a reasonably orderly fashion.
If the reader wishes to get a vision of how the cometary coma grew like a baby in Virgo’s belly after perihelion, Starry Night® Pro software proves helpful.4 Input the orbital elements along with a large nucleus diameter, the relevant absolute magnitude value, and the terrestrial location, and you will get a good general idea of the kind of thing that the Magi saw.5 With respect to the growth of the comet tail in length during that period, Project Pluto’s Guide 9.0 is the most useful software.
Overviewing the course of the comet during its 8/7–6 BC apparition serves a number of functions: (1) It demonstrates that a long-period, narrowly inclined, retrograde comet is capable of satisfying all the criteria to qualify as the Star of Bethlehem. (2) It authenticates Matthew’s account of the Star. In view of how ignorant the ancients were concerning comets, there is, quite frankly, no way that anyone could have invented such a complex cometary apparition that is perfectly consistent with modern astronomical knowledge. (3) It enables us to understand why the Magi were so awed by the Star and why they responded to it by making a long pilgrimage across the wilderness in a bid to find and worship the baby Messiah. (4) It reveals why the Bethlehem Star deserves its reputation as the greatest astronomical entity in human history.
It should be noted that sightings of the comet on any particular day/night from any particular geographical location was dependent on favorable atmospheric conditions.
The Comet’s Home
The Christ Comet had spent the preceding centuries hidden in the region of the sky associated with the constellation Pisces (“The Tails,” in Babylonian parlance6), more particularly under Pisces’s western/advance fish (fig. 10.1). This constellation was the comet’s home (from the perspective of Earth), where it long remained in darkness, far from curious human eyes. Surpassing even Hale-Bopp, the Christ Comet probably developed a coma more than 5 years before its discovery, farther away from the Sun than Uranus’s orbit (i.e., 20 AU or beyond).
FIG. 10.1 The constellation Pisces as envisioned by Ptolemy. The western or advance fish is at the bottom right of the illustration. From Richard Rouse Bloxam, Urania’s Mirror (London: Samuel Leigh, 1825). Image credit: oldbookart.com.
According to our orbit, on May 28, 8 BC, the comet, on its way to the Sun, passed about 0.55 AU, that is, about half the distance between Earth and the Sun, from Saturn. This encounter had some effect on the comet’s orbit, lengthening it.7
The First Observation
In our last chapter we suggested that the comet was first spotted between November 21–28, 8 BC, and December 10–17, 7 BC. Even the latest possible date of first observation would put the Christ Comet in a super-league of cometary greatness. At this point the comet was as far away from the Sun as Jupiter—it was 4.71–4.63 AU from the Sun (by comparison, Hale-Bopp was first observed when it was 4.37 AU from the Sun) and a little over 5 AU from Earth (see fig. 10.2). Back on November 21–28, 8 BC, the earliest possible date for the first observation of the comet, it was not far short of Saturn’s closest distance to the Sun—between 8.34 and 8.28 AU from the Sun (and Earth).
FIG. 10.2 Hale-Bopp four days after it became visible to the naked eye (May 24, 1996). The false-color image highlights the comet’s activity and structure at this early stage of its apparition. Images credit: David Hanon, Ringgold, GA.
A burst of brightness due to a cometary outburst could explain the early sighting. It is not uncommon for comets first to come to the attention of humans when they experience a sharp brightness outburst that causes them to cross the threshold of visibility.8 However, if that was so, the fact that the Magi were able to keep track of the Star through the following months suggests that the comet was like Hale-Bopp in having copious outbursts, “puffing them out one after another like a locomotive.”9
When a long-period comet is observed far from the inner solar system, its tail is typically not visible. Because the only observable brightness is concentrated around the nucleus, the comet can appear to be a new star and be initially classified as such. Such a first impression may have been difficult for the Magi to dispel, because the comet’s movement against the backdrop of the stars was so slow and slight (due to its great distance from Earth) that it may have been detectable only after weeks of observation.10
In what circumstances did the Star first appear? Did it have an auspicious beginning? We recall that Herod’s preoccupation with the Star’s first appearance could conceivably have reflected a concern that the Messiah might have been born at that time. It is important to survey the comet’s orbital course during the year between November 8 BC and December 7 BC to see where the comet would have been within the starry sky when the Magi discovered it.
On November 21–28, 8 BC, the comet would have been in the border region between the constellations of Aquarius the Water Bearer and Pisces the Fishes. Over the course of the following 6 months the comet would have slowly moved toward and under the western fish (the “Circlet”) of Pisces.
FIG. 10.3 The Christ Comet on November 21, 8 BC—it has passed Saturn on its way toward Jupiter and the Sun. (The comet icon is generic and is not intended to convey anything about the comet’s size in outer space.) Image credit: Sirscha Nicholl.
According to our orbit, one striking aspect of the comet’s movement within the dome of the sky during the year when it first appeared was a conjunction with Jupiter under the belly of the western fish (equated with the stars κ and λ Piscium) in the constellation of Pisces (with respect to zodiacal sign,11 it was crossing from Aquarius to Pisces).12 On the western horizon shortly after sunset between January 30 and February 10, 7 BC, the comet would have been within 1 degree of the King Planet.13 Our orbit suggests that the comet came to about half a degree from Jupiter on February 5. By February 10, the date when Jupiter made its last appearance in the western sky, the comet was about a degree from it. On the 5th, Jupiter and the comet would have been in the middle of a line of celestial entities consisting of the Sun and Venus on one side and Mercury and Saturn on the other, all within a 24-degree zone; by the 10th, the zone would have narrowed to 20 degrees.14
Could the comet have come to visibility at this time? If it did, one could well imagine that it might have seemed to Babylonians that Jupiter, the “King,” had begotten a new star. Striking and significant, such a sight would have ensured that the Magi paid close attention to the comet over the following months and years.
However, because the comet was getting very close to the Sun at twilight, it certainly would not have become visible for the first time then unless it experienced a sudden and dramatic surge in brightness, rendering it as bright as Jupiter. That is not impossible, but seems very improbable. For one thing, a first appearance 19½ months before perihelion seems implausibly early.
In the unlikely event that the Magi did observe the comet for the first time in early February of 7 BC, they would have found themselves frustrated because the comet and Jupiter would have disappeared below the western horizon very shortly thereafter. Having disappeared below the horizon, Jupiter would not have reemerged in the night sky until the middle of March. By the time of Jupiter’s heliacal rising around March 17, 7 BC, it would have been more than 5 degrees from the comet, but both were still located in the constellation of Pisces, below the tail of the western fish. In terms of zodiacal sign, they were firmly in Pisces.
When Jupiter and Saturn had the first of their three conjunctions in Pisces of 7 BC, coming to within 1 degree of each other on May 27–31, the comet, if visible, would have been less than 15 degrees away from each of them, still below the tail of Pisces’s western fish (and withi
n the zodiacal sign of Pisces).15
The comet remained below the tail of the western/advance fish of Pisces until mid-July, 7 BC, and then below its belly until the end of August.
With respect to the comet as it traveled in outer space, it was hurtling toward Jupiter, the gas giant. According to our orbit, it came to about 2.07 AU from Jupiter on July 1, 7 BC.
In August/September, 7 BC, the comet drifted slowly out of the constellation Pisces into the neighboring Aquarius (“The Great One” in Babylon) (fig. 10.4), reaching the stream of water that flowed out of the water-bearer’s water-jar16 in mid-September, 7 BC.
FIG. 10.4 The constellation figure Aquarius, with his water jar. From Bloxam, Urania’s Mirror. Image credit: oldbookart.com.
The comet was present in Aquarius’s water (which was, in Babylonian zodiacal reckoning, within the sign of Aquarius) for the second of the three Jupiter-Saturn conjunctions in Pisces—the two planets came to within 1 degree of each other from September 26 to October 5, 7 BC. If visible, the comet would have been just under 30 degrees from the planets at this time.
The comet remained in Aquarius’s flowing water (and within the Babylonian zodiacal sign of Aquarius) for a long time. Strikingly, according to our orbit, the comet was within 1½ degrees of the star λ Aquarii all the way from October 22 through to December 20, 7 BC. It was here through the third of the Jupiter-Saturn conjunctions in Pisces, which climaxed on December 1–8 in 7 BC (fig. 10.5).
FIG. 10.5 The possible celestial scene on December 5, 7 BC, when Jupiter and Saturn were in conjunction in Pisces for the third and final time in 7 BC, if the comet was visible at the time. Image credit: Sirscha Nicholl.
The comet was definitely visible to the Magi by December 10–17, 7 BC (fig. 10.6).
FIG. 10.6 The Christ Comet on December 17, 7 BC, the last possible date of first observation. The comet is near the orbit of Jupiter. Image credit: Sirscha Nicholl.
Our overview of November 21, 8 BC, to December 17, 7 BC (see fig. 10.7), provides a few potentially auspicious celestial contexts for the comet’s first appearance, all relating to the triple conjunction of Jupiter and Saturn in Pisces in 7 BC: (1) during the first conjunction in May–June, when the planets came to within 1 degree of each other (May 27–31) and the comet was within 15 degrees of them in the sign and constellation of Pisces; (2) during the second (and closest) conjunction in September–October, when the planets were within 1 degree of each other (September 26–October 5) and the comet was less than 30 degrees away, now in the sign and constellation of Aquarius, specifically in Aquarius’s water; or (3) during the third and final conjunction in early December, when the planets came to within 1 degree and 4 arcminutes of each other (December 1–8) and the comet was about 30 degrees from them, still in Aquarius’s water.
FIG. 10.7 The movements of the comet through the sky over the course of the year (from November 21, 8 BC, to December 17, 7 BC) when it was first seen. To the left is the western/advance fish of Pisces and to the right Aquarius with his water jar. Image credit: Sirscha Nicholl, using modified versions of the constellation illustrations from Bloxam, Urania’s Mirror (images credit: oldbookart.com).
It is astonishing that John Nolland, in his commentary on Matthew’s Gospel, proposed that the Star of Bethlehem was a “new star” that was first observed during the triple conjunction:
One might speculate that a new star appearing close to a near conjunction of Jupiter and Saturn (it has been popular to identify [one of three] near conjunctions of these planets in 7/6 BC with the star of the Magi) might be taken to herald a key royal birth among the Jews, on the basis that Jupiter was the royal planet and that Saturn, as the star of Saturday, was at times associated with the Jews because of their sabbath observance.17
The Magi would certainly have been more liable to notice a new star in Pisces or Aquarius while they were viewing the conjunction between Jupiter, the planet so closely associated with the Most High God, and Saturn. If the Star first appeared during one of the conjunctions, it might conceivably have transformed the scene into an investiture ceremony—the conjunction may have made it seem that Jupiter, representing God, was granting royal authority to Saturn, and that this authority would be exercised on behalf of Saturn by a ruler represented by the comet. Since oracles and omens marking the births of great kings tended to highlight their royal destiny, a comet appearing at such a propitious moment might have been initially perceived by the Magi to have a natal function (although the comet’s dramatic heliacal rising in Virgo in September/October of 6 BC certainly convinced them that the birth occurred then).18
The planet Saturn was sometimes associated with Israel, and hence the conjunction could have been interpreted to mean that God would bestow sovereignty to Israel. The sudden appearance of a new “star” in that same region of the sky at this point might have seemed to symbolize the investiture of the Messiah, who would rule and reign on behalf of Israel. Whether this would have been the Magi’s initial interpretation is questionable, but, as the allusions to Israel and the Messiah became clearer to them over the rest of the cometary apparition, it might well have become their preferred interpretation. A first appearance in Aquarius might (in retrospect) have been perceived to be significant in that it was thought to be ruled by Saturn, the planet of Israel, and Aquarius was sometimes considered the zodiacal sign of Israel.
If indeed there was something auspicious about the first observation of the comet and/or something susceptible to being interpreted as having natal significance, the comet most likely came to the Magi’s attention in connection with one of the three Jupiter-Saturn conjunctions. Cometary precedent would favor the second conjunction, in September-October in 7 BC, or the third conjunction, in December.19
The Comet’s Course from December 17, 7 BC, to September 14, 6 BC
According to our orbit, the comet actually remained under the waters of Aquarius until the point at which it disappeared below the western horizon, in January of 6 BC.20
From Pisces to Virgo
The comet was absent from the night sky completely until late March or early April of 6 BC.21 During this time Jupiter and Mars came very close to each other, when Saturn was in the vicinity, in what is called a massing or grouping of planets. This occurred in Pisces. Even though the Magi would not have been able to see the comet, they would have known that, if the comet was maintaining its pattern of behavior, it was within 30 degrees of Saturn under the western/advance fish of Pisces and would remain there until the spring. However, the astronomers may well have wondered if the comet might become visible in the dome of heaven sooner than this. After all, they would have been well aware of the fact that at some stage of their apparition many great comets suddenly start moving rapidly across the constellations and become brighter. However, this comet was highly exceptional; it was still far away from Earth and the Sun.
By the time that the comet did reemerge in the eastern morning sky,22 it had indeed returned to its home in Pisces, under its western fish.23 During its period of absence it had moved only about 10–15 degrees from where it had been, and this movement had actually delayed its reemergence. The comet had continued to increase in brightness and size. It would have been something like 3–5 degrees long from the top of its coma to the end of its tail.24
By mid-April the comet would have been about 5½ degrees long.
The comet remained below Pisces’s western fish and the part of the fishing line connected to it through April, May, June, and even July. Of course, during that whole time it would have been growing brighter, larger, and longer. Each night, it appeared higher in the sky and remained visible for a more extended period before dawn’s light bleached it from view.
John the Baptist was born 5 to 6 months before Jesus—this would have occurred in late April or in the early or middle part of May. That is right around the time when the comet would have been becoming a prominent feature in the night sky. It was on the occasion of John the Baptist’s birth that, accordi
ng to Luke 1:78–79, Zechariah, John the Baptist’s father, prophesied concerning the imminent coming of the Messiah in terms of a celestial body rising.25
By mid-May the cometary coma, its apparent length now greater than the Moon’s diameter, was appearing more than 3 hours before sunrise and would likely have had a magnitude (-0.1) greater than Arcturus, the fourth brightest star in the night sky.26 The comet may have been about 11 degrees in length. At this time the comet was “swimming” around the border region between the constellations Pisces and Cetus the Sea-Monster.
The comet’s extremely slow motion through the sky for such an extended period, even as it brightened and its tail and coma grew, must have struck the Magi as very peculiar. They would not have known that this unusual behavior was because the comet had become visible much farther from Earth than other comets that appeared in their skies.
By mid-June the comet’s brightness (-1.8) would have surpassed that of Sirius, the brightest star, approaching that of Jupiter. It would have been brighter than Hale-Bopp was during its entire 1996/1997 apparition.27 The comet as a whole may have been about 18 degrees long. The coma may have been about the size of Hale-Bopp’s at its largest. In length the coma may have been greater than the Moon’s diameter. It was now appearing almost 5 hours before dawn. The comet was in the midst of an apparent sharp celestial U-turn in Pisces. This marked the beginning of its long journey across the sky to the Sun, although this would not become obvious until July.