Visualizing Modern China: Image, History, and Memory, 1750–Present
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8. Expo news coverage offers the story of one winner, Zheng Jianfang of Fuzhou, who was awarded a Liverpool FC ball with signatures of team players in honor of his arrival as the 250,000th visitor to that city’s exhibition. A fan of the team, Zheng noted that he was willing to withstand the long queue for the pavilion because he had heard, as the story reports, that it had “lots of fun things to do.” See “250,000th visitor to Liverpool Pavilion wins signed ball,” http://en.expo2010.cn/a/20100712/000004.htm [accessed 20 August 2011].
9. Shanghai 2010 “Online Expo” Official Preview, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4nBEHF6Hgb4&feature=youtube_gdata [accessed 20 December 2013].
10. The virtual guide was none other than Haibao, Expo 2010’s merry blue mascot. Shanghai 2010 “Online Expo” Official Preview.
11. The three corporate sponsors were the China National Petroleum Corporation (中国石油天然气集团公司), the China Petrochemical Corporation (中国石油化工集团公司), and the China National Offshore Oil Corporation (中国海洋石油总公司).
12. The official Oil Pavilion site, including an animated image of its shifting colored appearance at night, can be found at: http://expooil.cnpc.com.cn/cn/EXPO2010_Shanghai/sbhsyg/ . Artists renditions associated with the design of the building can also be found at http://en.expo2010.cn/a/20090420/000007.htm [both sites accessed 20 August 2011].
13. The formulation of “Oil Baby” as the mascot for the pavilion is explained as “oil represents oil and gas, while baby means growth and hope.”
14. The Oil Pavilion’s interactive online site can be found at the following address: http://www.cnpc.com.cn/syg/ssize/index.html [accessed 20 August 2011]. For the online game itself, simply click the option on the right of the screen that’s offered there.
15. Chinese state officials have shown a concern for resource preservation and have urged individuals to conserve energy. In 2005, even as preparations for Expo 2010 were already underway, Jiang Yingshi, director of Shanghai’s Development and Reform Commission, warned of limited resources and the city’s need to recognize “the importance of saving energy and natural resources whenever possible.” Xinhua news service, http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2005-01/19/content_2479384.htm [accessed 20 December 2013]. Meanwhile, there are a growing number of online games on themes related to sustainability and consumption that one might compare to the Oil Baby game offered by China’s own petroleum corporations for Expo 2010. See, for example, the online alternate-reality game (ARG) entitled “World Without Oil” by Jane McGonigal and Ken Eklund as well as the satirical Flash game entitled “McDonald’s Videogame: I’m Playin’ It” by Mollieindustria. Many thanks to Caitlin Murphy for bringing these titles to my attention.
16. The English-language version of “2030, Xing!” was, as of August 2011, available at either of the following links: http://www.gmexpo2010.com/en/videos/17701 or http://www.tudou.com/programs/view/utd7IBJDrL8/ [accessed 2 February 2014].
17. OnStar, founded in 1995, offers navigation, communication, and security service for vehicles. It currently operates in China as a joint venture managed by SAIC and China Telecom.
18. For an overview of English-language media coverage of these and other problems at the time of the Expo’s opening day, see “Crowds Endure Waits as Shanghai’s Expo Opens” at The China Digital Times (1 May 2010). http://chinadigitaltimes.net/2010/05/crowds-endure-aaits-as-shanghais-expo-opens/ [accessed 2 February 2014].
19. See http://www.zonaeuropa.com/20100505_1.htm [accessed 3 February 2014] for a collection of these images.
20. Malcolm Moore, “Middle Class Protesters March over World Expo Threat to Shanghai Homes,” The Telegraph 8 February 2010. Moore notes a Shanghai city government response that asserted that an “open and transparent” process was in place for both resettlement and compensation, with, according to the state, 99.64 percent of 18,452 relocated households having signed a relocation contract. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/china/7189446/Middle-class-protestors-march-over-World-Expo-threat-to-Shanghai-homes.html [accessed 3 February 2014]. For more on tensions over urban property issues amid both Expo 2010 and the 2008 Beijing Olympics, see You-tien Hsing, The Great Urban Transformation: Politics of Land and Property in China (Oxford: Oxford UP, 2010).
21. One of the most famous of these nail-house cases was in Chongqing between 2005 and 2007. A variety of media presented coverage, including China Daily [http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2007-04/03/content_842221.htm] and The New York Times [http://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/27/world/asia/27china.html] [Links above accessed 3 February 2014.] One anonymous creator has also produced an online visual record in a map of reported property seizures in China. See “China’s Blood-Stained Property Map,” The Wall Street Journal, (29 October 2010) at http://blogs.wsj.com/chinarealtime/2010/10/29/chinas-blood-stained-property-map/ [accessed3 February 2014].
22. Such tensions have been seen most recently in the protests by villagers from Wukan who achieved global attention in their successful stand-off with local officials over a protested land sale. See the China Digital Times for full coverage: (http://chinadigitaltimes.net/china/wukan/). For an insightful commentary on the flexibility of state control of media coverage of such protests, see Ian Johnson, “Do China’s Village Protests Help the Regime?” http://www.nybooks.com/blogs/nyrblog/2011/dec/22/do-chinas-village-protests-help-regime/ [both accessed 3 February 2014]
23. For collections of these images, see http://chinadigitaltimes.net/2009/02/chinasmack-cctv-fire-funny-photoshops-by-chinese-netizens/ and http://www.chinasmack.com/2009/pictures/cctv-fire-funny-photoshops-by-chinese-netizens.html [accessed 3 February 2014].
24. See, for example, http://v.youku.com/v_show/id_XMjg3OTE2NTQ0.html [accessed 3 February 2014]. For an immediate report after the train crash on state efforts to control media coverage, see David Bandurski, “China Media Muzzled After a Day of Glory,” China Media Project website (31 July 2011) http://cmp.hku.hk/2011/07/31/14332/ [accessed 17 September 2011]. Sina Weibo can be found at http://weibo.com. The video sites Youku.com and Tudou.com are similar to YouTube, the latter being popular in the United States and abroad as a free-of-cost video-sharing site. Weibo.com has been compared to both Twitter and Facebook as a site that allows registered users to share personal news, opinions, conversations, and more. While these sites are censored by the state, significant material that has appeared on (and been erased from) these venues can also be found reproduced on open, aggregate sites such as the China Digital Times, Global Voices Online, and that of the China Media Project. See “Further Reading” notes for links.
25. Political satire and parody have a long history in China and indeed in many authoritarian regimes. For a study of one particular form called “slippery jingles” (shunkouliu), see Perry Link and Kate Zhou, “Shukouliu: Popular Satirical Sayings and Popular Thought,” in Perry Link, Richard Madsen, and Paul Pickowicz, eds., Popular China: Unofficial Culture in a Globalizing Society (Oxford: Rowman and Littlefield, 2002), 89–110.
Index
“2030, Xing!” (film), 286
advertising, 5, 6, 280, 284, 286–87;
sexualized images of sport, 109, 110
Aisin Gioro Jooliyan (poet), 35
All China Film Producers’ Conference, 151
All China Sent-Down Youth Working Meeting, 252
American Bureau for Medical Aid to China, 170
American Committee for Chinese War Orphans, 170
ancestral ceremonies, 9, 99
anti-Chinese racism, 127–28, 132, 139
Arbus, Diane, 121
architectural forms:
monumentality, 87–105;
overseas, 14, 129, 134, 134–38, 135, 140;
of previous regimes, 90–92, 91, 186–87
archival sources, 8–9, 34, 47
Attiret, Denis, 34
audience:
American, Chinese refugees and, 170–72;
elite observers, 54–60;
filmgoing practices, 232–35;
global, 166, 170, 243, 244;
interpretation, historical context of, 145–47, 153–55, 160, 161;
limited, 3, 23, 35–36, 92, 97;
nation as, 97–99;
for New Years’ Paintings, 69–70, 72.
See also cinema, Great Leap Forward era; cinema, Guomindang era (“leftist”); media, propaganda
autobiographical memoirs, 243
baby boomers, Chinese, 247
bamboo die-off, 262, 263
Ban Gu (historian), 37
Bao Guancheng, 117
Baodi County, 205
Baoding (city), 77
Batavia (Jakarta), 129
The Battle of China (film), 172
Beijing (city), 12, 73–74, 77–78, 90;
2008 Olympics, 19, 23, 281;
Hall of Purple Brilliance, 28, 31, 36;
Japanese attack on, 168–69;
Tiananmen Square, 1, 1–2, 101.
See also Sun Yat-sen Mausoleum
Beijing Film Studio, 231
Beijing-Fengtian railroad, 77, 78
Bi Yuan (Huguang Viceroy), 61
Big Road (film), 152
Bigfoot, 267, 272
binoculars metaphor, 274
“Bloody Saturday” photograph, 171, 181n12
Book of Changes, 40
Book of Documents, 37
Book of Poetry, 37, 40
borders, 128–29, 133, 138, 141–42
Boxer Rebellion, 52, 58, 78, 79
brigade propaganda team, 20
British Malaya, 129, 132
Brook, Timothy, 172–73
Broussard, Aaron (refugee), 167
Brown, Jeremy, 18–19
Brown, Michael D., 166
Bu Wancang (filmmaker), 153, 156
Buddhism, 4, 49, 70, 100
Bureau of New Year’s Picture Censorship, 78–79
The Burning of Red Lotus Temple (film), 150
Bush, George W., 167
calendar posters, 81, 110
California, 129
Canada, Chinese communities, 129, 132
canal system, 85n7
capital cities, tombs in, 90
Capra, Frank, 171–72
Castiglione, Giuseppe, 29, 30, 33–34
Central Film Censorship Committee (CFCC), 149, 150, 152, 154
Chang, Julian, 220
Chang, Michael, 7–8, 117
Changchun Film Studio, 231
Chaomidian (town), 75, 77, 84
Chen Boer (film bureau official), 155
Chen Duxiu (intellectual), 141
Chen Lifu (ideologue), 151, 153
Chen Lijun (former sent-down youth), 252
Chen Xiaomei, 243
Cheng Jihua (film historian), 156, 157
Chengdu (city), 237
Chiang Kai-shek, 89, 101, 113;
appeasement policy, 153–54
Chiang Kai-shek, Madame, 171, 179
China Central Television (CCTV), 289
China Huamei Tobacco Company, 117–18
China Pictorial, 264
China’s Girls Athletic Champions, 116, 118
Chinatowns, 132–38, 188
Chinese Chambers of Commerce, 138
Chinese Communist Party (CCP), 17–19, 23;
family ranking system, 193–94;
Soviet impact on, 191;
Sun Yat-sen Mausoleum and, 101, 102;
urban land reform program, 185–202.
See also cinema, Great Leap Forward era; Cultural Revolution; Dalian (city); Great Leap Forward; Great Leap Forward (1958–1960)
Chinese diaspora, 129–32
The Chinese Leftist Cinema Movement, 157
Chinese Wild Animal Protection Association, 266
Chongqing (city), 166
Chow, Rey, 114
Christianity, 50
Ci Jiwei, 221
cinema, Great Leap Forward era, 19–20, 23, 219–39;
all-night and daybreak screenings, 233;
belief in completed transition to socialism, 221, 224–25, 226;
developmental ideology, 224–25;
distribution, 231–32;
documentary-style feature film, 221–24, 223, 226, 235;
exaggerated claims, 226–27, 235–36;
exhibition network (fangying wang), 220, 233;
film as industry, 229–32;
film criticism groups, 232;
material abundance depicted in, 220–21, 225–26;
projection units, 232, 233;
removal from circulation, 235–36, 237;
“satellite films,” 231
cinema, Guomindang era (“leftist”), 145–64;
ambiguities of meanings, 150–53;
anti-Japanese messages, 153–54;
audience reception, 145–46;
films depicting class struggle and nationalism, 147–48, 152;
historical context, 145–47, 153–55, 161;
indecency, concerns with, 150–52, 151;
international film festivals, 152, 154, 159;
“leftist” as myth, 145–46, 152;
leftist filmmakers, 160;
martial arts and ghost films, campaign against, 150–51;
official list of supposedly leftist films, 157;
origins of “leftist” myth, 155–57;
patriotism in, 153–55;
said to be infiltrated by communist/leftist intellectuals, 149;
Shanghai film world, 155–57;
socially responsible, 150, 152, 154, 155;
Yan’ an filmmakers, 155–57;
“yellow face,” 145, 146;
“yellow peril” plot, 146;
Yihua Incident, 147–49
cities:
specific locations, 10, 11, 12;
treaty ports, 75, 204.
See also individual cities such as Beijing, Dalian, and Shanghai
citizen participation, 12–14, 22–23
citizenship, Huaqiao (“Chinese sojourner”), 128–29, 132
City Weekend (newspaper), 272
civic society, 173, 176
civil administration, 25–26
Cixi, Empress Dowager, 74
class consciousness, 160, 195
clothing, 198, 207–8;
urban fashion, 208, 209, 209–11, 210
coastal cities, 12
Cohen, Paul, 160
Cold War, 221
college, recommendation required, 251–52
colors, significance of, 136
communes, 225–27
communism.
See Chinese Communist Party (CCP)
Confucian norms:
Five Relationships, 54–55, 66n19;
modern conservatism as, 108;
Qianlong emperor and, 41, 42, 48–49;
Western criticism of, 139
Confucius, statue of, 137
conservatism, 108, 113
Cook, James, 14
coolie trade, 131–32
corn/wheat gap, 212–13
court paintings, 8, 27, 29, 47;
of Qianlong Emperor’s southern tours, 7, 7–8, 30, 30–32, 34, 36
cultural identity, 128–29
Cultural Revolution (1966–1976), 23, 101, 204, 209–10;
cinema and, 157;
English-language writings, 243, 246–47;
fall of, 1976, 259;
Mao, images of, 2–3;
new socialist countryside, 242;
official conclusion, 256;
photographs in histories of, 20–21
scar literature, 21, 243, 246, 247, 255.
See also sent-down youth
Dai and Wa minority people, 250
Dai Mengqin (fitness writer), 107–9, 120–21
Dalian (city), 17–18, 18;
colonial era housing conditions, 187–90, 189, 190;
colonial foundations of socialist efforts, 196–99, 197;
housing readjustment work teams, 193–94;
housing redistribution campaign,
190–96;
industrial development, 185–86, 197–98, 199–200;
Japanese areas, 188–90, 191;
Japanese technicians, 192;
looting, 192–93;
modernization program, 185–86;
parades of 1946, 18, 18, 187, 194–95, 199;
poor neighborhoods, 188, 189, 193;
residential segregation, 187–88, 189, 190;
Soviet involvement, 18, 186–87, 190–91, 195, 198;
spatial hierarchy, 188–89;
terms of ownership, 193–94;
workers’ dormitory complex (“Red House”), 188;
Xigang district, 188–89, 190, 194
Dangyang (city), 57, 61
Daoguang, Emperor, 75
Davis, Laurel, 109, 111, 117
Dawn in the Metropolis (film), 152
Deng Xian (former sent-down youth), 247, 251
Deng Xiaoping, 157, 252, 259;
economic development prioritized, 263, 266
Deng Yinjiao (athlete), 116
Development and Relief Commission (DRC), 176–78, 180
Dianshizhai Pictorial (magazine), 173–75, 174
Diligent Struggle Sport Monthly, 116, 119
disciplining power, 108–9, 120–21
documentary-style features, 226
Dong, Madeleine Yue, 12, 117, 119
Dong Zhiyong (Ministry of Forestry), 265
Dongfengtai (town), 77–78
Dream of the Red Chamber (film), 74, 107
Dutch East Indies, 129
Eight Allied Forces, 78
elite audience, 54–60
elites, 4;
disaster relief and, 173–75, 174;
sent-down youth, 246–47
The Empress or Sports (film), 151
Expo 2010 Shanghai, 22, 23, 279–94;
alternate images, 287–91, 288;
“Better City, Better Life” theme, 279, 283, 289, 290;
China Pavilion, 287;
consumer identification as loyalty, 283, 287;
demolition of neighborhoods for, 288–89, 290, 292n20, 293nn21, 22;
GM-SAIC, 286–87, 288;
Haibao (mascot), 279, 280, 291n2;
multi-event ticket packages, 279;
Oil Pavilion, 283–86, 285;
Online Expo, 279, 283;
publicity, 279–80, 280.
See also Shanghai (city)
Expo Shanghai Newsletter, 279