The Fever
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54. Todd L. Savitt, “Slave Health,” in Todd L. Savitt and James Harvey Young, eds., Disease and Distinctiveness in the American South (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1988), 124–25.
55. Quoted in Wood, Black Majority, 83.
56. Quoted in Dubisch, “Low Country Fevers,” 641–49.
57. See “Prevalence of the Sickle Cell Trait in Adults of Charlestown County, S.C.: An Epidemiological Study,” Archives of Environmental Health 17 (1968): 891–98, quoted in Wood, Black Majority, 89.
58. Curtin, “Epidemiology and the Slave Trade,” 190–216.
59. Taylor, American Colonies, 231.
60. Prebble, The Darién Disaster, 17–18.
61. Ibid., 12.
62. Ibid., 63.
63. Wafer had also helpfully aquired antimalarial cinchona bark in northern Chile in the 1680s. James L. A. Webb, Humanity’s Burden: A Global History of Malaria (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 96. Also Prebble, The Darién Disaster, 68–69.
64. See www.bbc.co.uk/weather/features/understanding/scotland_01.shtml.
65. Prebble, The Darién Disaster, 42.
66. Ibid., 91.
67. Quoted in Dennis R. Hidalgo, “To Get Rich for Our Homeland: The Company of Scotland and the Colonization of the Darién,” Colonial Latin American Historical Review 10, no. 3 (Summer/Verano 2001): 311–50.
68. Prebble, The Darién Disaster, 61, 65, 80, 97–100.
69. Ibid., 120–28.
70. Klein, The Atlantic Slave Trade, 134.
71. They sent just one hundred soldiers, out of four hundred who left Scotland. Prebble, The Darién Disaster, 128–44, 151–72, 189.
72. Gallup-Diaz, The Door of the Seas and Key to the Universe.
73. Hidalgo, “To Get Rich for Our Homeland.”
74. From National Archives of Scotland, GD406/1/4372.
75. Prebble, The Darién Disaster, 176, 182, 198.
76. Letter from George Douglas, April 10, 1699. From National Archives of Scotland, GD446/39/16.
77. From National Archives of Scotland, GD406/1/4372.
78. Prebble, The Darién Disaster, 204.
79. Ibid., 200–46.
80. Letter from Alexander Shields, February 2, 1700. From Registrar General for Scotland, OPR453/9, p. 139, cited in National Archives of Scotland, “The Darién Adventure,” text to an exhibition, 1998–1999.
81. Prebble, The Darién Disaster, 247, 255.
82. Christopher Storrs, “Disaster at Darién (1698–1700)? The Persistence of Spanish Imperial Power on the Eve of the Demise of the Spanish Habsburgs,” European History Quarterly 29, no. 1 (1999): 5–37.
83. Prebble, The Darién Disaster, 269–307.
84. Mike Ibeji, The Darién Venture, BBCi History, January 5, 2001, available at www.bbc.co.uk/history/state/nations/scotland_darien_01.htm.
85. Prebble, The Darién Disaster, 311.
86. Andrew Spielman lecture, “Malaria and Human Affairs,” course, Harvard University, March 2, 2006.
87. James O. Breeden, “Disease as a Factor in Southern Distinctiveness,” in Savitt and Young, eds., Disease and Distinctiveness in the American South, 3.
88. Taylor, American Colonies, 154.
89. Humphreys, Malaria: Poverty, Race, and Public Health in the United States, 25.
90. Taylor, American Colonies, 154.
91. Samuel A. Cartwright, “Report on the Diseases and Physical Peculiarities of the Negro Race,” New Orleans Medical and Surgical Journal (May 1851): 694.
92. Quoted in J.D.B. De Bow, The Industrial Resources, Etc., of the Southern and Western States: Embracing a View of Their Commerce, Agriculture, Manufactures, Internal Improvements; Slave and Free Labor, Slavery Institutions, Products, etc., of the South (New Orleans, La.: Office of De Bow’s Review, 1852), 308.
93. Lewis W. Hackett, Malaria in Europe: An Ecological Study (London: Oxford University Press, 1937), 175.
94. www.censusscope.org/us/map_common_race.html.
95. www.demographia.com/db-landstatepopdens.htm.
4. MALARIAL ECOLOGIES
1. Robert Sallares, Malaria and Rome: A History of Malaria in Ancient Italy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), 182.
2. Robert Sallares, “Role of Environmental Changes in the Spread of Malaria in Europe During the Holocene,” Quaternary International 150 (2006): 21–27.
3. Richard Carter and Kamini Mendis, “Evolutionary and Historical Aspects of the Burden of Malaria,” Clinical Microbiology Reviews 15, no. 4 (October 2002): 564–94.
4. Mario Coluzzi, “The Clay Feet of the Malaria Giant and Its African Roots,” Parassitologia 41 (1999): 280.
5. Lewis W. Hackett, Malaria in Europe: An Ecological Study (London: Oxford University Press, 1937), 41.
6. Andrew Spielman and Michael D’Antonio, Mosquito: A Natural History of Our Most Persistent and Deadly Foe (New York: Hyperion, 2001), 5–6.
7. Ibid., 7–8, 41.
8. Competitive interactions between larvae of different Anopheline species that lead to increased mortality have been observed in laboratory settings. See C.J.M. Koenraadt et al., “The Effect of Food and Space on the Occurrence of Cannibalism and Predation Among Larvae of Anopheles gambiae sl,” Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata 112 (2004): 125–34.
9. Carter and Mendis, “Evolutionary and Historical Aspects of the Burden of Malaria,” 564–94.
10. Leonard Jan Bruce-Chwatt and Julian de Zulueta, The Rise and Fall of Malaria in Europe: A Historico-Epidemiological Study (Oxford: Oxford University Press/ Regional Office for Europe of the World Health Organization, 1980), 89.
11. Sallares, Malaria and Rome, 97.
12. Ibid., 186.
13. Ibid., 134.
14. Robert Sallares, Abigail Bouwman, and Cecilia Anderung, “The Spread of Malaria to Southern Europe in Antiquity: New Approaches to Old Problems,” Medical History 48 (2004): 311–28.
15. Sallares, Malaria and Rome, 134.
16. Alessandro Perosa et al., “Febris: A Poetic Myth Created by Poliziano,” Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 9 (1946): 86.
17. Spielman and D’Antonio, Mosquito, 49.
18. Sallares, Malaria and Rome, 4.
19. Interview with David Soren, January 11, 2007.
20. Bruce-Chwatt and de Zulueta, The Rise and Fall of Malaria in Europe, 13.
21. Sallares, Malaria and Rome, 103.
22. Coluzzi, “The Clay Feet of the Malaria Giant,” 280.
23. Bruce-Chwatt and de Zulueta, The Rise and Fall of Malaria in Europe, 23, and R. Sallares, “Role of Environmental Changes in the Spread of Malaria in Europe During the Holocene,” Quaternary International 150 (2006): 21–27.
24. Sallares, “Role of Environmental Changes in the Spread of Malaria in Europe,” 21–27.
25. Ibid.
26. Sallares, Malaria and Rome, 49–53.
27. Ibid.
28. Perosa et al., “Febris,” 88.
29. Ibid.; David Soren and Noelle Soren, eds., A Roman Villa and a Late Roman Infant Cemetery: Excavation at Poggio Gramignano Lugnano in Teverina (Rome: L’erma di Bretschneider, 1999), 648.
30. F. E. Romer, “Famine, Pestilence, and Brigandage in Italy in the Fifth Century AD,” in Soren and Soren, eds., A Roman Villa, 465.
31. Ibid., 469.
32. Interview with David Soren, January 11, 2007.
33. David Soren, “Can Archaeologists Excavate Evidence of Malaria?” World Archaeology 35 (2003): 193–209.
34. Sallares, Malaria and Rome, 205.
35. Carter and Mendis, “Evolutionary and Historical Aspects of the Burden of Malaria,” 564–94.
36. Paul Reiter, “From Shakespeare to Defoe: Malaria in England in the Little Ice Age,” Emerging Infectious Diseases 6, no. 1 ( January/February 2000): 1–14.
37. www.answers.com/topic/dante-alighieri.
38. Frank M. Snowden, The Conquest of Malaria: Italy, 1900–1962 (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2006), 39–40.
&nb
sp; 39. Fiammetta Rocco, The Miraculous Fever-Tree: Malaria and the Quest for a Cure That Changed the World (New York: HarperCollins, 2003), 36.
40. Ibid.
41. Sallares, Malaria and Rome, 53.
42. Ibid., 231.
43. Perosa et al., “Febris,” 86.
44. Quoted in Sallares, Malaria and Rome, 227.
45. Ibid., 9, quoting Letters of Horace Walpole, ed. C. D. Yonge (1889).
46. Quoted in Daniel Pick, “‘Roma o Morte’: Garibaldi, Nationalism and the Problem of Psycho-biography,” History Workshop Journal 57 (2004): 1–33.
47. Mary Keele, ed., Florence Nightingale in Rome: Letters Written by Florence Nightingale in Rome in the Winter of 1847–1848 (Philadelphia, Penn.: American Philosophical Society, 1981), 27.
48. Ibid.
49. Quoted in Pick, “‘Roma o Morte’: Garibaldi, Nationalism and the Problem of Psycho-biography,” 1–33.
50. Quoted in Sallares, Malaria and Rome, 176.
51. Snowden, The Conquest of Malaria, 33.
52. Ibid., 16.
53. Theodore Steinberg, Nature Incorporated: Industrialization and the Waters of New England (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 12; and Walter H. Voskuil, The Economics of Water Power Development (Chicago and New York: A. W. Shaw Company, 1928), 3.
54. Ibid.
55. Interview with Susan McKnight, March 7, 2007; James Stevens Simmons, “The Transmission of Malaria by the Anopheles Mosquitoes of North America,” in Forest Ray Moulton, ed., A Symposium on Human Malaria with Special Reference to North America and the Caribbean Region (Washington, D.C.: American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1941), 113–19; T.H.D. Griffitts, “Impounded Waters and Malaria,” Southern Medical Journal 19 (1926): 367–70.
56. Todd L. Savitt and James Harvey Young, eds., Disease and Distinctiveness in the American South (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1988), 37.
57. John Frederick Schroeder, Memoir of the Life and Character of Mrs. Mary Anna Boardman (New Haven, Conn.: T. J. Stafford, 1849), 130.
58. Ibid., 130.
59. Rachel D. Carley, Voices from the Past: A History as Told by the New Milford Historical Society’s Portraits and Paintings (West Kennebunk, Maine: New Milford Historical Society by Phoenix Pub., 2000), 44–48.
60. Ibid.
61. Ibid.
62. Ibid.
63. www.ftp.rootsweb.com/pub/usgenweb/ct/litchfield/history/
1882/historyo/churchof44gms.txt.
64. See www.ftp.rootsweb.com/pub/usgenweb/ct/litchfield/history/
1882/historyo/churchof44gms.txt; G. H. Waldrop, Jr., “Grist Mills of New Milford: Little Falls Mill,” New Milford Historical Society, November 1998, and biographical data on Capt. Joseph Ruggles, New Milford Historical Society; Oliver Wendell Holmes, Boylston Prize Dissertations for the Years 1836 and 1837 (Boston: Charles C. Little and James Brown, 1838), 55.
65. Holmes, Boylston Prize Dissertations for the Years 1836 and 1837, 56–57; see www.sots.ct.gov/RegisterManual/SectionVII/
Population1756.htm.
66. Letter to Samuel Whiting, Esq., of Great Barrington, Mass., from Elijah Boardman, dated 1796. From New Milford Historical Society, Boardman Papers, folder 1.
67. Ibid.
68. David A. Warrell and Herbert M. Gilles, eds., Essential Malariology, 4th ed. (London: Hodder Arnold, 2002), 196.
69. John T. Cumbler, Northeast and Midwest United States: An Environmental History (Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO, Inc., 2005), 73.
70. Holmes, Boylston Prize Dissertations for the Years 1836 and 1837, 55.
71. Schroeder, Memoir of the Life and Character of Mrs. Mary Anna Boardman, 143.
72. Margaret Humphreys, Malaria: Poverty, Race, and Public Health in the United States (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001), 37.
73. John Duffy, “Impact of Malaria on the South,” in Savitt and Young, eds., Disease and Distinctiveness in the American South, 41.
74. Erwin H. Ackerknecht, Malaria in the Upper Mississippi Valley, 1760–1900 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1945), 56.
75. “Where Malaria Is Bred: The Underground Streams and Swamps of the City,” New York Times, November 6, 1883.
76. “Malarial Sickness: The Fever in Long Island City,” New York Times, October 1, 1877.
77. “Malaria’s Baleful Work,” New York Times, August 22, 1881.
78. “Where Malaria Is Bred.”
79. Ibid.
80. “Long Island Malaria,” New York Times, October 3, 1877.
81. “Where Malaria Is Bred.”
82. “Malaria’s Baleful Work.”
83. Correspondence with Michael Raber, July 21, 2006.
84. Voskuil, The Economics of Water Power Development, 15.
85. Cumbler, Northeast and Midwest United States, 57.
86. Quoted in ibid.
87. Holmes, Boylston Prize Dissertations for the Years 1836 and 1837, 55.
88. W. V. King and G. H. Bradley, “Distribution of the Nearctic Species of Anopheles” and “Bionomics and Ecology of Nearctic Anopheles,” in Forest Ray Moulton, ed., A Symposium on Human Malaria with Special Reference to North America and the Caribbean Region (Washington, D.C.: American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1941), 71–87.
89. Voskuil, The Economics of Water Power Development, 15.
90. “Malaria’s Baleful Work.”
91. C. M. Wenyon, “The Incidence and Etiology of Malaria in Macedonia,” Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps 27 (1921): 83–277.
92. Bruce-Chwatt and de Zulueta, The Rise and Fall of Malaria in Europe, 47.
93. H. Collinson Owen, Salonika and After (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1919), 175–85.
94. Bruce-Chwatt and de Zulueta, The Rise and Fall of Malaria in Europe, 47.
95. Ibid.
96. Owen, Salonika and After, 175–85.
97. Robert Bwire, Bugs in Armor: A Tale of Malaria and Soldiering (Lincoln, Neb.: ToExcel Press, 2000), 38, and Bruce-Chwatt and de Zulueta, The Rise and Fall of Malaria in Europe, 47.
98. Bruce-Chwatt and de Zulueta, The Rise and Fall of Malaria in Europe, 47.
99. Owen, Salonika and After, 187.
100. Hackett, Malaria in Europe, 2.
101. Owen, Salonika and After, 186.
102. Wenyon, “The Incidence and Etiology of Malaria in Macedonia,” 83–277.
103. Ackerknecht, Malaria in the Upper Mississippi Valley, 1760–1900, 89.
104. Wenyon, “The Incidence and Etiology of Malaria in Macedonia,” 83–277.
105. Hackett, Malaria in Europe, 2.
106. Bwire, Bugs in Armor, 40.
107. A. B. Knudsen and R. Slooff, “Vector-borne Disease Problems in Rapid Urbanization: New Approaches to Vector Control,” Bulletin of the World Health Organization 70, no. 1 (1992): 1–6.
108. Sir Malcolm Watson, African Highway: The Battle for Health in Central Africa (London: John Murray Publishers, 1953), 36.
109. Ibid., 24.
110. Ibid., 13–14.
111. Ibid., 26.
112. Steven Feierman, “Struggles for Control: The Social Roots of Health and Healing in Modern Africa,” African Studies Review 28, no. 2/3 ( June–September 1985): 119.
113. Watson, African Highway, 4, 174.
114. Pim Martens and Lisbeth Hall, “Malaria on the Move: Human Population Movement and Malaria Transmission,” Emerging Infectious Diseases 6, no. 2 (March–April 2000): 103–109.
115. Amy Yomiko Vittor et al., “The Effect of Deforestation on the Human-Biting Rate of Anopheles Darlingi, the Primary Vector of Falciparum Malaria in the Peruvian Amazon,” American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 74, no. 1 (2005): 676–80.
116. Marcia Caldas de Castro et al., “Malaria Risk on the Amazon Frontier,” PNAS 103, no. 7 (February 14, 2006): 2452–57; Wanderli P. Tadei et al., “Ecologic Observations on Anopheline Vectors of Malaria in the Brazilian Amazon,” American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene
59, no. 2 (1998): 325–35.
117. Amy Yomiko Vittor et al., “The Effect of Deforestation on the Human-Biting Rate of Anopheles Darlingi, the Primary Vector of Falciparum Malaria in the Peruvian Amazon,” 3–11.
118. Asnakew Kebede et al., “New Evidence of the Effects of Agro-ecologic Change on Malaria Transmission,” American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 73, no. 4 (2005): 676–80.
119. Deepa Suryanarayan, “Malaria Epidemic Set to Sting Mumbai,” Daily News and Analysis, August 30, 2006.
120. Swatee Kher, “Malaria on the Rise, but No Outbreak,” Express India online, July 5, 2006.
121. Indo-Asian News Service, “299 Malaria Deaths, 19 Dengue Deaths This Year in India,” FreshNews.in, September 3, 2008; Sumitra Deb Roy, “Malaria Becoming Harder to Treat,” Daily News and Analysis (India), August 24, 2008; Sumitra Deb Roy, “2 More Malaria Deaths in 24 Hrs,” Daily News and Analysis (India), August 26, 2008.
122. Fred Pearce, “Science: It Bites, It Kills, It’s Coming to Essex,” The Independent (London), February 18, 2000.
123. “Climate Change Brings Back Malaria,” ANSA.it, February 1, 2007.
124. Alastair McIndoe, “Malaria Goes Global as the World Gets Warmer,” The Straits Times (Singapore), April 29, 2008.
125. See, for example, Paul Reiter et al., “Global Warming and Malaria: A Call for Accuracy,” The Lancet 4 ( June 2004): 323–24.
126. R. Sari Kovats et al., “El Niño and Health,” Lancet 362, no. 9394 (November 1, 2003): 1481–89.
127. Ian Fisher, “Kisii Journal: Malaria, a Swamp Dweller, Finds a Hillier Home,” New York Times, July 21, 1999.
128. Ibid.
129. Andrew K. Githenko and William Ndegwa, “Predicting Malaria Epidemics in the Kenyan Highlands Using Climate Data: A Tool for Decision Makers,” Global Change and Human Health 2, no. 1 (2001): 54–63.
130. Ibid., 54–63.
131. Hong Chen et al., “New Records of Anopheles arabiensis Breeding on the Mount Kenya Highlands Indicate Indigenous Malaria Transmission,” Malaria Journal 5 (March 7, 2006): 17; and Harold Ayodo, “Malaria Infections on the Rise,” The Standard, October 5, 2006.
132. Joan H. Bryan et al., “Malaria Transmission and Climate Change in Australia,” Medical Journal of Australia 164 (1996): 345–47; John Walker, “Malaria in a Changing World: An Australian Perspective,” International Journal of Parasitology 28 (1998): 947–53.