The Fever
Page 29
176. Institute of Medicine, Saving Lives, Buying Time, 313.
177. “WHO Calls for an Immediate Halt to Provision of Single-drug Artemisinin Malaria Pills,” press release, January 20, 2006.
178. McNeil, “New Drug for Malaria Pits U.S. Against Africa.”
179. Yamey, “Global Health Agencies Are Accused of Incompetence.”
180. Jeanne Whalen, “Novartis Cuts Price of Coartem to Help Fight Malaria in Africa,” Wall Street Journal, October 2, 2006.
181. Donald G. McNeil, “Drug Partnership Introduces Cheap Antimalaria Pill,” New York Times, March 1, 2007.
182. Institute of Medicine, Saving Lives, Buying Time, 9.
183. Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria, Global Fund Eighteenth Board Meeting Decision Point, GF/B18/DP7, Eighteenth Board Meeting, New Delhi, India, November 7–8, 2008.
184. Institute of Medicine, Saving Lives, Buying Time, 116.
185. Médecins Sans Frontières, “ACT NOW to Get Malaria Treatment That Works to Africa.”
186. Gathura, “WHO Warns Malaria Drug Makers.”
187. Jack, “Monotherapy ‘Saves the Lives of So Many,’” Financial Times, January 20, 2006, 10.
188. Ibid.
189. Institute of Medicine, Saving Lives, Buying Time, 317.
190. Médecins Sans Frontières, “ACT NOW to Get Malaria Treatment That Works to Africa.”
191. McNeil, “Herbal Drug Widely Embraced in Treating Resistant Malaria.”
192. Ferrer-Rodriguez et al., “Plasmodium Yoelii: Identification and Partial Characterization of an MDR1 Gene in an Artemisinin-Resistant Line,” Journal of Parasitology 90 (2004): 152–60.
193. Patrick E. Duffy and Carol Hopkins Sibley, “Are We Losing Artemisinin Combination Therapy Already?” Lancet 366, no. 9501 (December 3, 2005): 1908–909; Ronan Jambou et al., “Resistance of Plasmodium falciparum Field Isolates to in-vitro Artemether and Point Mutations of the SERCA-type PfATPase6,” Lancet 366, no. 9501 (December 3, 2005): 1960–63.
194. Duffy and Sibley, “Are We Losing Artemisinin Combination Therapy Already?” 1908–09; Jambou et al., “Resistance of Plasmodium falciparum Field Isolates,” 1960–63.
195. World Health Organization, Report of an Informal Consultation, “Containment of Malaria Multi-drug Resistance on the Cambodia-Thailand Border,” Phnom Penh, January 29–30, 2007. In January 2009, a study reported that ACT-resistant falciparum had spread beyond the Cambodia-Thai border and deeper into southern Cambodia. W. O. Rogers et al., “Failure of Artesunate-mefloquine Combination Therapy for Uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum Malaria in Southern Cambodia,” Malaria Journal 8, no. 10 ( January 12, 2009).
196. Donald G. McNeil, “Drug Makers Get a Warning from the U.N. Malaria Chief,” New York Times, January 20, 2006.
197. Gathura, “WHO Warns Malaria Drug Makers.”
198. Nicholas Zamiska, “Infectious Issue: Global Health, China’s Pride on Line in Malaria Clash,” Wall Street Journal, March 6, 2007.
199. Donald G. McNeil, “An Iron Fist Joins the Malaria Wars,” New York Times, June 27, 2006.
200. Paul N. Newton et al., “Manslaughter by Fake Artesunate in Asia—Will Africa Be Next?” PLoS Medicine 3, no. 6 ( June 2006).
201. Paul N. Newton et al., “A Collaborative Epidemiological Investigation into the Criminal Fake Artesunate Trade in South East Asia,” PLoS Medicine 5, no. 2 (February 2008); Walt Bogdanich and Jake Hooker, “Battle Against Counterfeit Drugs Has New Weapon: Pollen,” New York Times, February 12, 2008; Reuters, “Fake Malaria Drugs Threatening Africa, Says Expert,” Gulfnews.com, July 24, 2006; Newton et al., “Manslaughter by Fake Artesunate in Asia—Will Africa Be Next?”
202. Willard H. Wright, Forty Years of Tropical Medicine Research: A History of the Gorgas Memorial Institute of Tropical and Preventive Medicine, Inc., and the Gorgas Memorial Laboratory (Baltimore, Md.: Reese Press, 1970), 52.
203. Richard M. Garfield and Sten H. Vermund, “Changes in Malaria Incidence After Mass Drug Administration in Nicaragua,” Lancet, 2, no. 8348 (1983): 500–03.
204. David Lague, “On Island Off Africa, China Hopes to Wipe Out Malaria,” International Herald Tribune, June 6, 2007.
205. Ed Harris, “Chinese Researchers Claim Comoros Malaria Success,” Reuters, March 11, 2008.
6. THE KARMA OF MALARIA
1. David Ropeik, “Understanding Factors of Risk Perception,” Nieman Reports, Winter 2002.
2. Author visit to Chikwawa, Malawi, February 23, 2007.
3. John Peffer-Engels, Chewa (New York: Rosen Publishing Group, 1996), 17–18.
4. Deborah Kaspin, “A Chewa Cosmology of the Body,” American Ethnologist 23, no. 3 (August 1996): 561–78.
5. Interview with Dr. Yamikani Chimalizeni, Blantyre, Malawi, February 19, 2007.
6. Deborah L. Helitzer et al., “The Role of Ethnographic Research in Malaria Control: An Example from Malawi,” Research in the Sociology of Health Care, 10 (1993): 269–86.
7. H. Kristian Heggenhougen et al, The Behavioural and Social Aspects of Malaria and Its Control (Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization, 2003), 43.
8. Interview with David Smith, Blantyre, Malawi, February 24, 2007.
9. Steven Feierman, “Struggles for Control: The Social Roots of Health and Healing in Modern Africa,” African Studies Review 28, no. 2/3 ( June–September 1985): 87.
10. Peffer-Engels, Chewa, 19.
11. Helitzer et al., “The Role of Ethnographic Research in Malaria Control,” 269–86.
12. Institute of Medicine, Saving Lives, Buying Time: Economics of Malaria Drugs in an Age of Resistance (Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press, 2004), 58.
13. Heggenhougen et al., The Behavioural and Social Aspects of Malaria and Its Control, 10.
14. June Msechu, “Community’s Perceptions and Use of Antimalarial Drugs in the Home Management of Malaria in Rural Tanzania,” Fourth MIM Pan-African Malaria Conference, Yaoundé, Cameroon, November 15, 2005.
15. Institute of Medicine, Saving Lives, Buying Time, 7.
16. Heggenhougen et al., The Behavioural and Social Aspects of Malaria and Its Control, 50, 56.
17. Helitzer et al., “The Role of Ethnographic Research in Malaria Control,” 269–86.
18. Ibid.
19. M. Ettling et al., “Economic Impact of Malaria in Malawian Households,” Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 45 (1994): 74–79.
20. Ibid.
21. Heggenhougen et al., The Behavioural and Social Aspects of Malaria and Its Control, 136.
22. Michael and Elspeth King, The Story of Medicine and Disease in Malawi: The 130 Years Since Livingstone (Blantyre, Malawi: Montfort Press, 1992), 23–25.
23. Author visit to Chikwawa, Malawi, February 23, 2007.
24. Msechu, “Community’s Perceptions and Use of Antimalarial Drugs.”
25. Tidiane Ndoye, “L’observance des traitements antipaludiques au Senegal: Le rôle des differents dispensateurs de traitements,” Fourth MIM Pan-African Malaria Conference, Yaoundé, Cameroon, November 15, 2005.
26. Interview with Dr. Yamikani Chimalizeni, Blantyre, Malawi, February 19, 2007.
27. Heggenhougen et al., The Behavioural and Social Aspects of Malaria and Its Control, 60.
28. Caroline Jones, “The Social Reality of Malaria,” Fourth MIM Pan-African Malaria Conference, Yaoundé, Cameroon, November 15, 2005.
29. Author visit to Gorgas Memorial Institute, Panama City, Panama, April 21, 2006.
30. Sir Malcolm Watson, African Highway: The Battle for Health in Central Africa (London: John Murray Publishers, 1953), 236.
31. Presentation by Kamija Phiri, Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Blantyre, Malawi, February 13, 2007.
32. Interview with Dr. Themba Mzilahowa, Blantyre, Malawi, February 14, 2007.
33. World Health Organization, World Malaria Report 2008, Geneva,10.
34. Institute of Medicine, Saving Lives, Buying Time, 221.
35. Lars Hviid, “Immunology and Path
ogenesis: Naturally Acquired Protective Immunity to Plasmodium falciparum Malaria in Africa,” Fourth MIM Pan-African Malaria Conference, Yaoundé, Cameroon, November 16, 2005.
36. Institute of Medicine, Saving Lives, Buying Time, 146.
37. Interview with Terrie Taylor, Blantyre, Malawi, February 2007.
38. Institute of Medicine, Saving Lives, Buying Time, 221.
39. Ibid., 169.
40. Donald McNeil, “Revisions Sharply Cut Estimates on Malaria,” New York Times, September 23, 2008.
41. Interview with Socrates Litsios, New Haven, Conn., November 8, 2008.
42. Jones, “The Social Reality of Malaria.”
43. Sheldon Watts, Epidemics and History: Disease, Power, and Imperialism (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1997), 225.
44. Donald G. McNeil, Jr., “Drug Partnership Introduces Cheap Antimalaria Pill,” New York Times, March 1, 2007, A3. Standing in front of a line of Malawian women and children melting onto a hospital bench waiting to hear results of their malaria tests, the malariologist Karl Seydel remarked, “They’d be relieved to get a positive.” Interview with Karl Seydel, February 2007.
45. Interview with Martin Hayman, November 15, 2006.
46. Institute of Medicine, Saving Lives, Buying Time, 314.
47. Gerard Krause and Rainer Sauerborn, “Comprehensive Community Effectiveness of Health Care: A Study of Malaria Treatment in Children and Adults in Rural Burkina Faso,” Annals of Tropical Paediatrics 20 (2000): 273–82.
48. Heggenhougen et al., The Behavioural and Social Aspects of Malaria and Its Control, 151.
49. W. Fungladda, “Health Behaviour and Illness Behaviour of Malaria: A Review,” quoted in Heggenhougen et al., The Behavioural and Social Aspects of Malaria and Its Control, 11.
50. Tina Rosenberg, “The Scandal of ‘Poor People’s Diseases,’ ” New York Times, March 29, 2006.
51. Patrick Brantlinger, “Victorians and Africans: The Genealogy of the Myth of the Dark Continent,” Critical Inquiry 12, no. 1 (Autumn 1985): 166–203.
52. Michael and Elspeth King, The Story of Medicine and Disease in Malawi, quoting Robert Laws, 40.
53. David Livingstone and John Kirk, “Original Communications: Remarks on the African Fever on the River Zambezi,” letter to the editor of The Medical Times and Gazette, November 12, 1859.
54. “Dr. Livingstone, the Great Explorer of Central Africa,” Harper’s Weekly, January 31, 1857.
55. Letter from David Livingstone to Dr. James Ormiston McWilliam, November 28, 1860, available at www.livingstoneonline.ucl.ac.uk, published in Transactions of the Epidemiological Society of London, 1860.
56. Michael and Elspeth King, The Story of Medicine and Disease in Malawi, 5, quoting Livingstone.
57. Quoted in R. M. Packard, “Malaria Dreams: Postwar Visions of Health and Development in the Third World,” Medical Anthropology 17 (1997): 179–96.
58. Herbert S. Klein, The Atlantic Slave Trade (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 185.
59. Michael and Elspeth King, The Story of Medicine and Disease in Malawi, 30.
60. Jeanne Whalen, “Novartis Cuts Price of Coartem to Help Fight Malaria in Africa,” Wall Street Journal, October 2, 2006.
61. Interview with Bob Laverty, Yaoundé, Cameroon, November 12, 2005.
62. “Developing Countries Slow to Order Coartem Despite Boost in Production,” Kaisernetwork.org, January 19, 2006.
63. Andrew Jack, “Up to 10m Malaria Tablets ‘May Be Destroyed,’” Financial Times, July 24, 2006.
7. SCIENTIFIC SOLUTIONS
1. Visit to Dyann Wirth lab, Harvard School of Public Health, Cambridge, Mass., March 10, 2008.
2. Roy Porter, The Greatest Benefit to Mankind: A Medical History of Humanity (New York: W. W. Norton, 1997), 437.
3. Daniel Pick, “‘Roma o morte’: Garibaldi, Nationalism and the Problem of Psycho-biography,” History Workshop Journal 57 (2004): 1–33.
4. Frank M. Snowden, The Conquest of Malaria: Italy, 1900–1962 (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2006), 21.
5. Ibid., 39–40.
6. Dale C. Smith and Lorraine B. Sanford, “Laveran’s Germ: The Reception and Use of a Medical Discovery,” American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 34, no. 1 (1985): 2–20.
7. “Introduction: Part One, Recent Research in Malaria,” British Medical Bulletin 8, no. 1 (1951); Robert S. Desowitz, The Malaria Capers: More Tales of Parasites and People, Research and Reality (New York: W. W. Norton, 1991), 167–68, and Gordon Harrison, Mosquitoes, Malaria and Man: A History of the Hostilities Since 1880 (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1978), 11.
8. Douglas M. Haynes, Imperial Medicine: Patrick Manson and the Conquest of Tropical Disease (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001), 14.
9. Smith and Sanford, “Laveran’s Germ,” 2–20.
10. “North River Malaria,” New York Times, July 13, 1884.
11. Smith and Sanford, “Laveran’s Germ,” 2–20.
12. Desowitz, The Malaria Capers, 169.
13. Haynes, Imperial Medicine, 14, 98.
14. Ibid., 22–40.
15. Ibid., 48, 51.
16. David Soren and Noelle Soren, eds., A Roman Villa and a Late Roman Infant Cemetery: Excavation at Poggio Gramignano Lugnano in Teverina (Rome: L’erma di Bretschneider, 1999), 637.
17. Stephen H. Gillespie and Richard D. Pearson, Principles and Practice of Clinical Parasitology (Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley and Sons, 2001), 9.
18. John Farley, “Parasites and the Germ Theory of Disease,” Milbank Quarterly 67, suppl. 1 (1989): 50–68.
19. Haynes, Imperial Medicine, 49–82.
20. James Stevens Simmons, Malaria in Panama (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1939), 8–9.
21. Ibid., 18; David McCullough, The Path Between the Seas: The Creation of the Panama Canal, 1870–1914 (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1977), 134.
22. McCullough, The Path Between the Seas, 159, 174.
23. Press dispatch from Panama, “Is M. de Lesseps a Canal Digger or a Grave Digger?” Harper’s Weekly, September 3, 1881.
24. McCullough, The Path Between the Seas, 144.
25. “North River Malaria.”
26. See, e.g., R. Patterson, “Dr. William Gorgas and His War with the Mosquito,” Canadian Medical Association Journal 141 (6), September 15, 1989, 596.
27. McCullough, The Path Between the Seas, 221–23.
28. Patrick Manson, “On the Nature and Significance of the Crescentic and Flagellated Bodies in Malarial Blood,” British Medical Journal (December 8, 1894).
29. Haynes, Imperial Medicine, 90.
30. W. F. Bynum and Caroline Overy, eds., The Beast in the Mosquito: The Correspondence of Ronald Ross and Patrick Manson (Amsterdam and Atlanta, Calif.: Rodopi B.V., 1998), 55, 125.
31. Mark Harrison, Public Health in British India: Anglo-Indian Preventive Medicine, 1859–1914 (London: Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine), 1994.
32. Ronald Ross, Child of Ocean: A Romance (London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd., 1932), 118.
33. Bynum and Overy, eds., The Beast in the Mosquito, 321.
34. Ronald Ross, “The Third Element of the Blood and the Malaria Parasite,” Indian Medical Gazette, January 1894, 5–14.
35. Bynum and Overy, eds., The Beast in the Mosquito, 5.
36. Ibid., 1–321.
37. Amico Bignami, “Hypotheses as to the Life-history of the Malarial Parasite Outside the Human Body,” Lancet (November 21, 1896).
38. Ernesto Capanna, “Grassi versus Ross: Who Solved the Riddle of Malaria?” International Microbiology 9 (2006): 69–74; Ronald Ross, Memoirs (London: John Murray, 1928), 337.
39. Bignami, “Hypotheses as to the Life-history of the Malarial Parasite.”
40. Bynum and Overy, eds., The Beast in the Mosquito, 85.
41. Ibid., 133.
42. Ibid., 279.
43. Ibid., 291.
44. Ibid., 336.
45. Ro
ss, Memoirs, 339.
46. Bynum and Overy, eds., The Beast in the Mosquito, 355.
47. Ibid., 387.
48. Ibid., 341.
49. Bynum and Overy, eds., The Beast in the Mosquito, 357.
50. Ross, Memoirs, 341.
51. Bynum and Overy, eds., The Beast in the Mosquito, 411.
52. Ross, Memoirs, 355.
53. Bynum and Overy, eds., The Beast in the Mosquito.
54. Ross, Memoirs, 455.
55. Bynum and Overy, eds., The Beast in the Mosquito, 396.
56. Ibid., 289.
57. Capanna, “Grassi versus Ross,” 69–74.
58. Bynum and Overy, eds., The Beast in the Mosquito, 466.
59. Lewis W. Hackett, Malaria in Europe: An Ecological Study (London: Oxford University Press, 1937), 12.
60. Ibid., 12.
61. Bynum and Overy, eds., The Beast in the Mosquito, 437.
62. J. M. Hurley, “Is the Mosquito a Disseminator of Malaria?” Pacific Medical Journal 48 (1905): 338–42, quoted in F. Ellis McKenzie and Ebrahim M. Samba, “The Role of Mathematical Modeling in Evidence-based Malaria Control,” American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 71, suppl. 2 (2004): 94–96.
63. Bynum and Overy, eds., The Beast in the Mosquito, 390.
64. Ross, Memoirs, 365.
65. Harrison, Public Health in British India, 159.
66. Ross, Memoirs, 430.
67. Bynum and Overy, eds., The Beast in the Mosquito, 449.
68. Quoted in N. H. Swellengrebel, “How the Malaria Service in Indonesia Came into Being, 1898–1948,” The Journal of Hygiene 48, no. 2 ( June 1950): 146–57.
69. Snowden, The Conquest of Malaria, 46.
70. Hackett, Malaria in Europe, 16.
71. Ross, Memoirs, 415.
72. S. R. Christophers, Second Report of the Anti-malarial Operations at Mian Mir, 1901–1903: Scientific Memoirs by the officers of the Medical and Sanitary Departments of the Government of India, 1904.
73. Bynum and Overy, eds., The Beast in the Mosquito; W. F. Bynum, “‘Reasons for Contentment’: Malaria in India, 1900–1920,” Parassitologia 40 (1998): 19–27.
74. Snowden, The Conquest of Malaria, 158.
75. Sir Malcolm Watson, African Highway: The Battle for Health in Central Africa (London: John Murray Publishers, 1953), 236.