Outposts on the Frontier: A Fifty-Year History of Space Stations (Outward Odyssey: A People's History of Spaceflight)

by Jay Chladek

  Waste management is handled by the Environmental Control Life Support System departments at the NASA centers. In preparation for six-person occupancy, engineers at Marshall developed a new urine-recycling rack that would be hooked up to a second Waste and Hygiene Compartment (or lavatory), planned for launch on STS-126. This newer toilet is the same design as the one in the Russian segment and uses many of the same parts to make replacement easier, but rather than off-loading urine to the storage tank, the urine would be sent to the recycler instead. The tank system is kept as a backup in case a problem develops in the rack. On orbit, the urine-recycling racks are the responsibility of JSC’s Environmental Control Life Support System department in Houston.

  In a distillation process on Earth, heat is typically used to boil off water; in space, high heat can be dangerous. Therefore, water is boiled off from urine with reduced pressure instead. A rotary centrifuge is used to help the separation process, making sure that the heavy parts of the urine are split off from the lighter-weight water. Additional filters help to catch any residual waste products. The ulraconcentrated urine is stored in a tank, which the engineers refer to as brine storage. Once the tank is full, it is replaced with a fresh tank and disposed of on a Progress. One tank can carry a month’s worth of concentrated urine from six crewmembers.

  The separated water from the urine-recycling rack is sent to the water-recycling racks, where it is combined with water recovered from the station’s internal humidity (including sweat). From there, it can be used as a technical-grade water, or a biocide (something that kills bacteria) such as iodine can be added to make it safe for drinking. Many people might get squeamish at the thought of drinking water from urine, but the station’s recycling process isn’t all that different from what happens in nature. The water can also be used to generate oxygen for the life-support systems by using electrolysis. Gaseous hydrogen from the electrolysis process is vented overboard.

  “Somebody Call a Plumber?”

  Before the new recycler could launch on STS-126, a minor problem developed with the Russian toilet on orbit. The separator system wasn’t working properly and needed two flush cycles to empty when only one should have been needed. Engineers on the ground traced the problem, and replacement parts were loaded at the last minute aboard Discovery just before it launched on STS-124. The problem received coverage in the media and on the Internet, generating a bit of humor in the process. Discovery launched into orbit on 31 May 2008. Its seven-person crew, commanded by spaceflight veteran Mark Kelly, had a busy mission in store, as their primary task was delivery of the pressurized Kibo laboratory module. JAXA astronaut Akihiko Hoshide would oversee the outfitting and activation of the module. Discovery docked with the station on 2 June 2008; upon hatch opening, the first words from Mark Kelly to ISS crewmember Garrett Reisman were, “Somebody call a plumber?” After the malfunctioning separator parts were changed out, the toilet returned to normal function.

  Kibo

  The main payload aboard STS-124 was the pressurized Kibo laboratory module. It was the second part of the Japanese Experiment Module (JEM) package built by JAXA. In the Kibo laboratory, astronauts can conduct research directly funded by Japan in various disciplines from materials science to biomedical research. Given Japan’s large population, biomedical research into disease control and the effects of aging are considered very important to their program.

  JAXA was formed by the merging of three former Japanese space agencies: the National Space Development Agency, the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science, and the National Aerospace Laboratory. The National Space Development Agency was the largest of the three agencies when JAXA was formed in 2003. So to Japan’s ISS and astronaut programs, it was mostly a name change with a new patch logo.

  The Kibo module was docked with the Harmony node’s port side on 3 June 2008; after an EVA lasting over five hours conducted by Mike Fossum and Ron Garan, it was opened up the next day. Once the early checks had been completed, the combined station and shuttle crews entered the module. Kibo is the largest dedicated ISS laboratory module with a length of just under thirty-seven feet and a diameter of fourteen feet. Its empty interior without a lot of science racks installed was very spacious.

  The combined ISS and shuttle crews took a few minutes to enjoy some zero-g tumbling exercises inside Kibo. On the downlinked video to mission control, the size of the empty module made the astronauts almost look like goldfish swimming in an aquarium. Garrett Reisman also managed to get himself stuck in the middle of the empty space to see if he could maneuver his body to get to a wall. It took a few moments and some interesting body contortions, but he was successful. His activity was acknowledged by ISS CAPCOM Chris Cassidy saying, “Well done Garrett, well done. Golf clap.”

  Kibo’s interior wouldn’t remain empty for long. Two days later, the Experiment Logistic Module that had been sent up previously was berthed to Kibo’s zenith CBM; once the approval was given, the crews began outfitting the lab with science racks and covers for the floor and ceiling areas. Kibo can hold up to twenty-three science racks. Four were launched into orbit with it, and eight more were added from the logistics module. Others would arrive on later flights. The OBSS was also retrieved by Discovery and survived its time in orbit in good shape.

  Kibo had its own dedicated robotic arm installed and checked out by astronauts Karen Nyberg and Akihiko Hoshide from the lab’s newly installed work station. The arm acts as an interface to transfer experiments from Kibo’s scientific airlock to external racks in front of the module. The racks would be installed on STS-126 and allow for the placement of experiments outside without the need for EVAs.

  Reisman was replaced on Expedition 17’s crew by astronaut Greg Chamitoff, who arrived on STS-124. Two Orlan space walks were conducted by Volkov and Kononenko in July; among their various tasks, they removed a suspect pyrobolt from the Soyuz for analysis on the ground. Special care was taken to insulate the bolt inside a container during TMA-12’s return, to lessen the chance of it detonating inside the Soyuz during reentry.

  Second-Generation American in Space

  In October 2008, Expedition 18 arrived at the station aboard Soyuz TMA-13. Commanding the crew was cosmonaut Yuri Lonchakov, with astronaut Michael Fincke serving as flight engineer. Joining them was spaceflight participant Richard Garriott. Richard Garriott was the son of Skylab and STS-9 scientist-astronaut Owen Garriott. Rather than pursuing a career in laboratory science like his father, Richard Garriott decided to focus instead on computer science and programming, as he had shown a knack for it while growing up, convincing his high school to let him take part in a self-taught programming course for credit. Richard Garriott formed the company Origin Systems in the 1980s and made a fortune designing computer games, such as the very popular Ultima series. But he never entirely forgot his father’s heritage, as the younger Garriott was an avid collector of space memorabilia. When the right opportunity came to purchase a ride on a Soyuz as a spaceflight participant, Richard Garriott jumped at the chance.

  Owen Garriott was on hand in Baikonur to see his son off as the mission launched into orbit on 12 October. Once the crew arrived at the ISS, it marked the first time that second-generation space travelers from Russia and the United States were in orbit at the same time. When Richard Garriott began his training at Star City, one of his intentions was to become the first second-generation space traveler. But with Sergei Volkov going into space several months earlier as part of Expedition 17, he was denied that chance. Richard Garriott also became the second space traveler to wear a British flag on his clothing, since he was born in England and maintains dual citizenship.

  SARJ Repairs

  Soyuz TMA-12 returned to Earth with Volkov, Kononenko, and Garriott on board after a nine-day transition period. The reentry and descent went just fine with no pyrobolt or ballistic reentry problems. Chamitoff remained on board as part of Expedition 18 to help with the transition. The space shuttle Endeavour paid the ISS a visit that Novembe
r on mission STS-126. Among the cargo, they brought up two crew quarters racks for the Harmony node, the new Waste and Hygiene Compartment, a new galley (or kitchen) for the station, and other hardware to help prepare the ISS for a six-person crew.

  Not much external assembly work was planned for this flight, given that much of the shuttle crew’s tasks would take place inside, but four EVAs were conducted on this mission. Heidi Stefanyshyn-Piper conducted three of the space walks as the lead spacewalker. She was joined by Stephen Bowen on the first and third EVAs and by Robert Kimbrough on the second one. Bowen and Kimbrough conducted the fourth space walk. While the EVAs involved some equipment replacement, the primary focus was to finish repairs on the starboard solar array’s SARJ.

  Problems were detected initially in 2007 as the starboard arrays had picked up a vibration while moving. Metal shavings removed on inspection space walks determined that elements of the SARJ were wearing out prematurely. Peggy Whitson and Dan Tani replaced a drive motor during an Expedition 16 staged EVA as a precaution. After studying the problem, NASA decided to replace the trundle bearings in the SARJ, which are used to help the race ring of the joint to move properly. The repairs were very important as without the SARJ, the starboard arrays could not be moved to track the sun properly and the power supply of the ISS would be reduced. The repairs were also necessary before the launch of STS-119 in early 2009, as its cargo was the final set of starboard solar arrays.

  During the four space walks, the EVA teams removed and replaced the trundle bearings. They also used grease guns to lubricate the SARJ movement tracks. A problem developed with one of the guns, though; on the first space walk, trapped air inside the gun caused grease to ooze out into Stefanyshyn-Piper’s tool bag, creating a sticky, gray mess inside. While she concentrated on getting grease off her gloves, the tool bag began to float away. She considered grabbing for it, but it was too far away to grab safely and got lost in orbit. Heidi Stefanyshyn-Piper felt bad for what happened since she was the lead spacewalker on the mission, but she finished the space walk with Stephen Bowen, using the tools she needed from his bag. NASA’s procedures to double up on the necessary items had come in handy once more. To other astronauts who have worked on EVAs, losing tools is a subconscious concern, and everyone acknowledges that it could have just as easily happened to them as well. The media coverage made a bigger deal out of it than it was.

  The remaining space walks took place with no problems; after controllers on the ground checked everything out, the SARJ was back in operation once again. After the mission, engineers on the ground redesigned the grease guns with an additional locking mechanism on the tip to ensure that grease would not leak out until an astronaut needed to use it. The errant tool bag orbited Earth as its own satellite for a few months before it finally entered the atmosphere and burned up.

  Eating in Space

  Endeavour wrapped up its work and undocked on 28 November 2008, taking astronaut Greg Chamitoff home and adding astronaut Sandy Magnus to Expedition 18. Since the mission took part over the Thanksgiving holiday in the United States, the food lab at JSC had prepared a special meal for the combined crews, in the form of turkey and candied yams.

  Since the early days of food preparation in NASA programs, the science of edible space meals had advanced considerably. Food preparation on the U.S. side of the ISS is the responsibility of JSC’s food laboratory. Along with a special facility at Texas A&M University in College Station, Texas, they handle purchasing of commercial goods and in-house preparation of many of the meals. During the shuttle program, food packaging shifted to flying prepackaged meals in bags, instead of the cans used during Skylab.

  Food preparation on the ground can vary depending on the items being sent into orbit. A large percentage of the food products are flown to the ISS in a dehydrated state to both cut down weight and give them a longer shelf life. Dehydrated products are contained inside special pouches with a septum (a one-way valve) on one end. An astronaut inserts a water-dispensing tool into the septum to inject the prescribed amount of hot or warm water needed to reconstitute the product. The septum prevents water from leaking from the port when removed from the dispenser. After a few minutes, when the water has properly mixed with the product, the astronaut can cut open the bag to eat the food. The food is designed to stick to the bag and eating utensils so that particles don’t go drifting off into the cabin.

  Drinks are prepared in a similar fashion, as each drink bag contains the mixing powder inside it, while instructions for how much water is needed are printed on the outside. A straw is inserted into the top of the bag after water is added. Astronauts can enjoy hot beverages such as instant coffee (with cream and sugar already added, since the bag can’t be opened to mix it) or cool ones such as instant lemonade or fruit punch. One of the water dispensers is in the Zvezda module, and it can dispense two temperatures of water in the form of hot (usually very hot) and warm. A cold drink requires something else.

  There is no active refrigeration on the ISS for food storage, but the galley launched on STS-126 includes a small beverage cooler capable of chilling drink bags. The cooler comes in very handy after a workout on the station’s exercise equipment, since a cold drink is more refreshing than a warm one. Ice cream has been sent into orbit by the food lab periodically when empty science freezers were being sent up on shuttle missions to bring back frozen biological samples, but this was a rare luxury.

  Not every space food product on the ISS is dehydrated, though. Because dehydration would damage the contents of some food, many foods are thermostabilized, meaning that only heat is used to purify them before packaging and no water is removed. Other foods are irradiated to kill pathogens before packaging. A few items, typically the bonus foods requested by specific crewmembers, are purchased off the shelf. A lot of the food is similar to what one might find for camping trips. Bread products, such as tortillas, are vacuum packed in special bags with an oxygen scavenger card (similar to what is found in bags of beef jerky) to help prevent bacterial growth. Tortillas are used because they take up less storage space than sliced bread and work just as well for making sandwiches without drying out or releasing crumbs as easily.

  Finger foods, such as the ever popular “candy-coated peanuts” (NASA doesn’t call them M&Ms as they don’t want to be seen as endorsing a commercial product), are also available for snacking purposes. The packaging for these foods is similar to the type used for military MREs (Meals Ready to Eat). Dry, crumbly items are kept to a minimum; so in the case of hard crackers or cookies, bite-size versions are flown instead of larger ones, allowing crewmembers to consume them whole to prevent crumbs.

  The taste of the food is pretty good, and astronauts get a chance to sample their menu choices at the food lab before their missions. For a standard ISS crewmember, there is no real restriction as to what they can eat unless they are taking part in a study where they have to keep track of their food consumption closely, but the food lab at JSC does closely coordinate with the medical and research departments to ensure that the crewmembers get the proper nutritional and caloric intake in their diets. Vitamin D is the only supplement added to the food, since astronauts aren’t able to safely get suntans in orbit.

  Each food product on the U.S. and Russian side has a bar code, and a scan of the code will reveal the date the product was packaged, what shipping container it was sent in, and its contents, to help keep track of any problems. Since some of these items are off-the-shelf commercial products, the JSC food lab keeps track of them in case of product recalls.

  “What Is a Party Chicken?”

  Many food items flown by the Russians to the ISS come in metal cans, which don’t look all that different from the ones used on Skylab. Some Russian food products, such as snack foods and bread cubes, are packaged in bags. To help prevent injury from sharp can edges and prevent metal shavings from floating free in the cabin, NASA sent up a hand-twist commercial can opener that cuts through the side of the can seal rather than throug
h the edge of the lid. The cans can be warmed in slots built into the RSM’s dinner table.

  Each food label is written in both Russian and English. Since each language has some unique words, the translations have periodically provided a few conversation pieces. The Russians have a canned meat dish known simply as the “Appetizing Appetizer” (what one might call “mystery meat”) in English. The JSC food lab has a thermostabilized spicy chicken dish known as “Fiesta Chicken.” But when the name was translated into Russian, somebody from Roscosmos asked, “What is a party chicken?” since “fiesta” translates into “party” in Russian. A food lab scientist had to explain that “fiesta” also refers to a type of spice preparation common to the American Southwest.

  Different crewmembers have different tastes, and some foods are better liked than others. Another issue is that taste perception can change in orbit. Due to fluid changes in the body, astronauts can feel as though they are stuffed up, until their bodies adjust. The sense of smell is also affected since air currents flow differently on orbit. So food that tastes good on Earth can taste a little bland in zero gravity. To help compensate for this, some of the food choices have a little more spice added to them. For instance, shrimp cocktail is one of the most popular dishes because the cocktail sauce has a kick of horseradish added to it.

  Salt and pepper in liquid forms are provided for seasoning, as are small fast-food packets of ketchup and mustard. Different hot sauces, horseradish, and wasabi are also popular, and NASA periodically sends up condiment bags stuffed with such goodies on resupply flights. European foods are typically canned like the Russian ones. The Japanese have been starting to fly their own foods in unique packaging for their astronauts as well.