Richard L Epstein

by Critical Thinking (3rd Edition) (pdf)

  claim, if that's what the speaker intended. After all, we don't have very precise ways

  to describe our feelings.

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  But what if it's so cold that everyone agrees that it's cold outside. Is "It's cold"

  still subjective? Yes, since whether it's true or false depends on what a lot of people

  think—no standard independent of people has been put forward. We can further

  classify subjective claims that (nearly) everyone agrees on as intersubjective.

  SECTION B Subjective and Objective 21

  E x a m p l e s Are the following objective or subjective claims, or not claims at all?

  Example 1 Dick weighs 215 pounds.

  Analysis This is an objective claim. Whether it's true or false doesn't depend on

  what anyone thinks or believes.

  Example 2 Dick is overweight.

  Analysis If Dick's doctor says this, he's probably thinking of some standard for

  being overweight, and he intends it as an objective claim. If you or I say it, it's

  probably subjective, just as if we were to say someone is ugly or handsome.

  Example 3 Wanda is fat.

  Analysis "Fat" isn't a technical term of a doctor. It's a term we use to classify

  people as unattractive or attractive, like "beautiful." The claim is subjective. If

  Wanda is so obese that (we suspect) everyone will agree she's fat, we could further

  classify the example as an intersubjective claim.

  Example 4 Lee: I felt sick yesterday, and that's why I didn't come to work.

  Analysis Lee didn't feel sick yesterday—he left his critical thinking writing

  assignment to the last minute and had to finish it before class. So this is a false

  subjective claim.

  Example 5 Dick: Spot eats canned dog food right away, but when we give him

  dry dog food, he doesn't finish it until half the day is over.

  Zoe: So Spot likes canned dog food better than dry.

  Analysis Dick makes an objective claim: It's about how Spot acts. Zoe infers from

  that a subjective claim about what Spot thinks or feels.

  Example 6 There is an even number of stars in the sky.

  Analysis You might think it's easier to know whether objective claims are true

  compared to subjective ones. But this example is objective and no one has any idea

  how to go about finding out whether it is true. On the other hand, when it's well

  below freezing outside and I see my dog whining and shivering, I'm almost certain

  that "My dog feels cold" is true.

  22 CHAPTER 2 What Are We Arguing About?

  Analysis Sure, "too loud" is vague. It's subjective, too. But it serves its purpose here. We understand what he means.

  Example 8 Socialism is the most efficient way to ensure that all members of a

  society are fed and clothed.

  Analysis There's a lot of disagreement about this, but that doesn't mean it's

  subjective. It's objective, assuming that "efficient" has been clearly defined.

  Whether a claim is subjective or objective doesn't depend on whether it's true

  or false, nor on whether someone knows if it's true or false, nor on how much

  disagreement there is about whether it's true or false.

  Subjectivist fallacy It's a mistake to argue that because there is a lot

  of disagreement about whether a claim is true, it's therefore subjective.

  The subjectivist fallacy is just one version of the common mistake of

  confusing objective with subjective claims.

  Lee: I deserve a higher mark in this course.

  Dr. E: No, you don't. Here's the record of your exams and papers.

  You earned a C.

  Lee: That's just your opinion.

  Lee is treating an objective claim, "I deserve a higher mark in this course," as if it

  were subjective. But if it really were subjective, there'd be no point in arguing about

  it with Dr. E, any more than arguing about whether Dr. E feels cold.

  Often it's reasonable to question whether a claim is really objective. But

  sometimes it's just a confusion. All too often people insist that a claim is subjective

  — "That's just your opinion"—when they are unwilling to examine their beliefs or

  engage in dialogue.

  Treating a subjective claim as objective is also a mistake.

  What are Dick and Zoe arguing about? He likes the tie; she doesn't.

  EXERCISES for Section B 23

  Exercises for Section B —

  1. a. What is a subjective claim?

  b. What is an objective claim?

  c. Are there any claims that are neither objective nor subjective?

  2. What is meant by a "personal standard"?

  3. a. Give an example of a true objective claim.

  b. Give an example of a false objective claim.

  c. Give an example of a true subjective claim.

  d. Give an example of a false subjective claim.

  4. Explain why a sentence that is too vague to be taken as an objective claim might be

  acceptable as a subjective claim.

  5. Make up a list of five claims for your classmates to classify as objective or subjective.

  6. State whether each of the following is objective, or subjective, or not a claim at all.

  In some cases you'll have to imagine who's saying it and the context. Where possible,

  explain your answer in terms of the standards being used.

  a. Wool insulates better than rayon.

  b. Silk feels better on your skin than rayon.

  c. Pablo Picasso painted more oil paintings than Norman Rockwell.

  d. Bald men are more handsome.

  e. All ravens are black.

  f. You intend to do your very best work in this course.

  g. Murder is wrong.

  h. Your answer to Exercise 3 in Chapter 1 of this book is wrong.

  i. Demons caused me to kill my brother.

  j. (In a court of law, said by the defense attorney) The defendant is insane.

  k. He's sick. How could anyone say something like that?

  1. He's sick; he's got the flu.

  m. Suzy believes that the moon does not rise and set.

  n. Dick's dog is hungry.

  o. God exists.

  7. Bring to class two advertisements, one that uses only subjective claims and another that

  uses only objective claims.

  8. a. Give an example of someone treating a subjective claim as if it were objective,

  b. Give an example of someone treating an objective claim as if it were subjective.

  9. Dick: If you don't slow down, we're going to get in an accident! You nearly went out

  of control going around that last corner!

  Zoe: That's just what you think.

  Is Zoe right? How should Dick respond?

  24

  CHAPTER 2 What Are We Arguing About?

  C. Prescriptive Claims and Value Judgments

  Suppose Tom says to Suzy, "Abortion is wrong." It's clear that Tom thinks "wrong"

  means no one should do it. Tom isn't speaking about how the world is, but how it

  should be.

  Descriptive and prescriptive claims A claim is descriptive if it says what is.

  A claim is prescriptive if it says what should be.

  Compare:

  Drunken drivers kill more people than sober drivers do. descriptive

  There should be a law against drunken driving.

  prescriptive

  Dick is cold. descriptive

  Dick should put his sweater o
n. prescriptive

  Selling cocaine is against the law. descriptive

  Larry shouldn't sell cocaine. prescriptive

  Often when someone says that something is "good," "better," "best," "bad,"

  "worse," "worst," or makes some other value judgment, it's meant as prescriptive, in the sense that we shouldn't do what is bad/wrong/worse, and that we should do or

  choose what is good/better/best.

  What appears to be a moral claim or value judgment, though, is often too vague

  to be a claim. For example, when Tom says "Abortion is wrong," what standard is

  he invoking? In disagreement with the commands of the Bible? In disagreement

  with what a priest said? In disagreement with the Koran? In disagreement with

  moral principles that are not codified but are well-known? Until he and Suzy are

  clear about the standard, there's nothing to debate.

  On the other hand, Suzy might say, "Maybe abortion is wrong to you, but it's

  O.K. to me." No further standard is needed then, for she views "Abortion is wrong"

  as a subjective claim—the standard is personal. But then there's nothing to debate.

  Often when you challenge people to make things clearer, they'll say, "I just

  mean it's wrong (right) to me." Yet when you press them, it turns out they're not

  so happy that you disagree. They're being defensive, and what they really mean is

  "I have a right to believe this." Of course they do. But do they have a reason to

  believe it? It's rare that people intend moral views to be subjective.

  I've got a right to believe this. I have a good reason to believe this.

  E x a m p l e s Are the following prescriptive or descriptive claims? What standards

  are being invoked?

  EXERCISES for Section C 25

  Example 1 Omar: Eating dogs is bad.

  Analysis This is a prescriptive claim, since it carries with it the assumption that we

  should not eat dogs.

  Zoe agreed with Omar when he said this to her, but did she really know what

  standard Omar had in mind? Perhaps he's a vegetarian and believes:

  You should treat all animals humanely, and butchering animals is inhumane.

  Or Omar might believe just:

  Dogs taste bad and you shouldn't eat anything that tastes bad.

  Or perhaps Omar believes:

  We should not eat anything forbidden by the standard interpretation

  of the Koran, and it is forbidden to eat carnivores.

  Or Omar might just believe what almost all Americans believe:

  Dogs should be treated as companions to people and not as food.

  Until Zoe knows what Omar means by "bad," she has no reason to view what he's

  said as a claim.

  Example 2 Harry: The Federal Reserve Board ought to lower interest rates.

  Analysis This is a prescriptive claim. Zoe's mother disagrees with Harry, since she

  wants to see her savings account earn more interest. Harry says the standard he's

  assuming is "The Federal Reserve Board should help the economy grow," which is

  what he and Zoe's mom should debate.

  Example 3 Zoe: That's enough ice cream for you, Dick.

  Dick: What do you mean? There's no such thing as too much ice cream.

  Analysis Zoe is making a prescriptive claim, since when she says "That's enough"

  she means that Dick should stop eating. Dick challenges her unstated standard.

  Example 4 Dick: Cats are really disagreeable animals.

  Analysis Not every value judgment is prescriptive. Here Dick is making a value

  judgment, but there's no "should" in it or implied by it.

  Exercises for Section C

  1. What is a prescriptive claim?

  For each of the following, explain why you understand it as prescriptive or descriptive,

  providing a standard to make it clear enough to be a claim if necessary. Then say whether

  you think it is true or whether you think it's false.

  2. Incest is evil.

  26 CHAPTER 2 What Are We Arguing About?

  3. Incest is against the law.

  4. Larry shouldn't marry his sister.

  5. Drinking and driving is bad.

  6. It's better to conserve energy than to heat a room above 68°.

  7. Risking a prison term is the wrong thing for a father to do.

  8. It's about time that the government stop bailing out the farmers.

  9. Dick and Zoe have a dog named "Spot."

  10. It's wrong to tax the rich at the same rate as the poor.

  11. (Clerk at the supermarket) Picasso is a better painter than Rembrandt.

  12. (Lee's art history teacher) Picasso is a better painter than Rembrandt.

  Definitions

  We've seen that we can get into problems, waste our time, and generally irritate each

  other through misunderstandings. It's always reasonable and usually wise to ask

  people we are reasoning with to be clear enough that we can agree on what it is we

  are discussing.

  Two general methods of making clear what we say are:

  1. Replace the entire sentence by another that is not vague or ambiguous.

  2. Use a definition to make a specific word or phrase precise.

  Definition A definition explains or stipulates how to use a word or phrase.

  "Dog" means "domestic canine."

  Puce is the color of a flea, purple-brown or brownish-purple.

  "Puerile" means boyish or childish, immature, trivial.

  SECTION D Definitions 27

  There are several ways we can make a definition. One way, as with the

  definition of "dog," is to give a synonym, a word or phrase that means the same

  and that could be substituted for "dog" wherever that's used.

  Another way is to describe: A lorgnette is a kind of eyeglass that is held in the

  hand, usually with a long handle.

  Or we can explain, as when we say a loophole is a means of escaping or

  evading something unpleasant.

  Or we can point:

  Even though pointing isn't part of language, it serves to make our language clear.

  Definitions are not true or false, but good or bad. Definitions tell us what we're

  talking about. Claims are what we use to make assertions about that subject.

  A definition is not a claim. We add a definition to an argument so

  that we can understand each other. A definition is not a premise.

  People often hide a claim that should be debated behind an apparent definition.

  For example, if someone defines "abortion" as "the murder of unborn children," he's made it impossible to have a reasoned discussion about whether abortion is murder

  and whether a fetus is a person. A persuasive or self-serving definition is a claim that should be argued for, masquerading as a definition.

  If you call a tail a leg, how many legs has a dog? Five? No, calling a tail a

  leg don't make it a leg. attributed to Abraham Lincoln

  E x a m p l e s Which of the following are definitions? Persuasive definitions?

  Example 1 A donkey is an animal.

  Analysis This is not a definition. It doesn't tell us how to use the word "donkey"; it tells us something about donkeys. Not every sentence with "is" in it is a definition.

  Example 2 "Coitus" means "sexual intercourse."

  Analysis Definition by synonym is the simplest, most reliable definition we can

  get, if we know the synonym.

  28 CHAPTER 2 What Are We Arguing About?

  Example 3 Getting good marks in school means that you are intelligent.

  Analysis Getting good marks in school is not what the word "intelligent" means.

  Here "means" is used in the sense
of "If you get good marks in school, then you're

  intelligent."

  Example 4 Meyer Friedman and Ray Rosenman . . . identified a cluster of behavioral

  characteristics—constant hurriedness, free-floating hostility, and intense competitiveness—

  that seemed to be present in most of their patients with coronary disease. They coined the

  term Type A to describe this behavior pattern; Type B describes people who do not display Daniel Goleman and Joel Gurin, Mind Body Medicine

  Analysis We often find definitions embedded in a text like this. But these are

  much too vague unless some standards are given for what is meant by "constant

  hurriedness," "free-floating hostility," and "intense competitiveness" (none were given in the text). How could you determine whether someone you know is Type A

  or Type B from this definition? A good definition must use words that are clearer

  and better understood than the word being defined.

  Example 5 —Maria's so rich, she can afford to pay for your dinner.

  —What do you mean by "rich"?

  —She's got a Mercedes.

  Analysis This is not a definition, since by "rich" we don't mean "has a Mercedes."

  There are lots of people who are rich who don't have a Mercedes, and some people

  who own a Mercedes aren't rich. What we have here is an argument: "Maria has a

  Mercedes" is given as evidence that Maria is rich; "means" is used in the sense of

  "therefore."

  I just tried to convince you that "has a Mercedes" is not a good definition of

  "rich." How? I pointed out that someone could own a Mercedes and not be rich,

  or be rich and not own a Mercedes.

  Example 6 Microscope: an instrument consisting essentially of a lens or combination of lenses, for making very small objects, as microorganisms, look larger so that they can be

  seen and studied. Webster's New World Dictionary

  Analysis This is from a dictionary, so it's got to be a good definition. But if you're

  trying to convince someone that what she sees through a microscope is actually

  there—that it's not in the lens or inside the microscope like a kaleidoscope—then

  this definition won't do. "See, there really are microorganisms. After all, it's part of

  the definition of a microscope that it's just enlarging what's there." What counts as a

  persuasive definition can depend on the context.

  Example 7 A Pittman Elementary School teacher won a narrow Supreme Court [of