Richard L Epstein
Page 56
for, 84-85,87-90
authority,
advertising, 94
bad appeal to, 97
affirmative categorical claim, 375
we should trust?, 87-90
affirming the consequent, 129, 200
average, 27J-274
"all" claim, 760
alcoholism, 67,328-329
bad argument, conclusion of, 46
alternatives, 114
biased sample, 283-284
ambiguous sentence, 16
biased source, 89
analogy, reasoning by, 253-259
begging the question, 38, 202
generalizations and, 291
Big Lie, 84
in legal reasoning, 257-259
Brown v. Board of Education, 224
steps in evaluating, 257
Bulletin of Advanced Reasoning and
"and" claim, 115
Knowledge, 242-245
formalization of, 360
burden of proof, shifting, 185, 202
anecdotal evidence, 287
antecedent, 121
calling in your debts, 193
appeal to authority, bad, 97, 201
categorical claim, 374-375
appeal to common belief, bad, 97, 201
categorical syllogism, 381
appeal to common practice, 201,203
standard form, 382
appeal to emotion, 191-195, 201
causal claim, 301
appeal to fear, 192
general, 303
appeal to pity, 191
cause-in-population vs., 320
appeal to spite, 193
particular, 303
apple polishing, 194
causal factor, 312
apples and oranges, 268
cause
arguing backwards, 96. See also
"can cause" vs., 312
affirming the consequent,
close to effect, 306-307
arguing backwards with "all", 164, 200
common, 305-306
arguing backwards with "almost all",
how to look for the, 317-318
171, 200
in populations, 320-323
arguing backwards with "no", 766,200
intervening, 314
argument, 5
joint, 312
good, 37
looking for, 309,317-318
tests to be good, 42
437
438 Index
cause (continued)
contradictory (continued)
makes a difference, 305
of a general claim, 161
necessary criteria for, 307
of an "and" claim, 115
precedes effect, 305
of an "or" claim, 115
testable, 314,317-318
contrapositive, 124
tracing backwards, 306
formalization of, 363
cause and effect
contrary of a claim, 378
described with claims, 302
control group, 320-321
general, 303
controlled experiment: cause-to-effect,
generalization needed for, 303
320-321
in populations, 320-323
correlation for cause and effect, 303, 305
necessary criteria for, 307
counterarguments, 147-149
normal conditions for, 303, 307, 320
diagramming, 389-390
particular, 303
Country Joe MacDonald, 254
post hoc ergo propter hoc, 308-309
criteria for accepting or rejecting claims,
reversing, 308
84-85, 87-90
claim, 3. See also type of claim,
critical thinking, 5
e.g., subjective claim,
classical abstraction, 359
decision making, 351
coincidence, 309
definition, 26
common belief, bad appeal to, 97
examples and —s, 355-356
common cause, 305-306
good, 29
common thread, 320
not a claim, 26
comparisons, reasoning about.
persuasive, 28, 181
See analogy,
steps in making, 30
composition, fallacy of, 257
steps in understanding, 108
compound claim, 113
denying the antecedent, 130, 200
truth-value of, 362
dependent premise. See independent premise,
concealed claim, 181-186
descriptive claim, 24
conclusion, 5
as conclusion, 195
follows from, 40
diagrams, checking for validity with, 163-167
of a bad argument, 46
diagramming arguments, 385-390
conditional claim, 121
differences, in judging analogies, 256-257
contradictory of, 121
direct way of reasoning with "all", 164, 200
formalization of, 361
direct way of reasoning with "almost all",
confidence level, 289
171, 200
confusing objective and subjective, 22, 201
direct way of reasoning with conditionals,
conjunction, 360
127, 200
consequent, 121
direct way of reasoning with "no", 166, 200
content fallacy, 201
direct ways of refuting an argument, 149
contradiction, 85, 90
disjunction, 361
between actions and words, 99
disjunctive syllogism, 117
See also reducing to the absurd,
downplayer, 183
contradictory of a claim, 114
drawing the line fallacy, 16, 201
of a categorical claim, 378-380
dubious claim, 38
of a conditional, 121, 363
dysphemism, 182
Index 439
effect. See cause and effect.
hasty generalization, 287
euphemism, 182
hyperbole, 183
evaluating an argument, steps in, 107
"even if", 122
"if and only if ", 127
examples, summary of how to use in
"if... then ...". See conditional claim.
reasoning, 355-357
implausible claim, 38
excluding possibilities, 117
impersonal standards, 20
exclusive "or" claim, formalization of,
inclusive "or" claim, formalization of, 360
360, 365
independent premises, 223, 386
experience, personal,
indicator word, 48, 63, 221
in evaluating claims, 84-85
indirect way of reasoning with
experiment, for cause and effect,
conditionals, 128, 200
controlled, cause-to-effect, 320-321
inductive evidence, 280
uncontrolled, cause-to-effect, 321
inferring, 74
uncontrolled, effect-to-cause, 321-322
innuendo, 185
explanations, 382
Internet, 88, 89, 91, 94-95, 155
intersubjective claim, 20
fallacy, 16, 799-204.
intervening cause, 314
See also type of fallacy, e.g.,
invalid argument, 39-41
slippery slope,
irrationality, mark of, 61
false dilemma, 118-1 19, 201
irrelevant premise, 69, 202
feel-good argument, 194
"is" from "ought", 65
"follows from", 40
issue, 5
foreseeable consequence of a cause, 313
joint causes, 312
gambler's fallacy, 285
journals. See med
ia.
general causal claim, 303
judgment, suspending, 61,84,90
general claims, 759-162, 356
generalities
King, Martin Luther, Jr., 66
precise, 170
vague, 171-172
law of large numbers, 285, 309
generalization, 219-280
legal reasoning, 44, 257-259
analogies and —s, 291
Lincoln, Abraham, 27, 61
hasty, 287
loaded question, 182
needed for cause and effect, 303
premises needed to be good, 289
major term of a syllogism, 381
statistical, 279, 289-290
mark of irrationality, 61
generic premise, 201
margin of error, 289
glue, 54, 55, 59, 64-66
Marx, Groucho, 90
good argument, 37
mean, 273
tests for a, 42
media, 88-90
good definition, 29
median, 274
graphs, 270-273
memory, 85
Guide to Repairing Arguments, 62, 63
middle term of a syllogism, 381
See also unrepairable arguments.
minor term of a syllogism, 381
mistaking the person for the argument,
haphazard sampling, 284, 286
98, 201
440 Index
mistaking the person for the claim, 97, 201
premise (continued)
mode, 274
evaluating, 83-91
modus ponens, 127
independent, 223, 386
modus tollens, 128
irrelevant, 69
moral claims, 24
prescriptive claim, 24
as conclusion, 65, 194
necessary and sufficient conditions, 124-125
Principle of Rational Discussion, 60
necessary criteria for cause and effect, 307
violations of, 6 0 - 6 1 , 2 0 2
negation of a claim, 114
probabilities, 285
formalization of, 360
proof substitute, 184
negative categorical claim, 375
"no" claim, 160
qualifier, 183
no-matter-what argument, 132
quality of a categorical claim, 375
normal conditions for cause and effect,
quantity of a categorical claim, 375
303, 307, 320
quotation marks, 18
objective claim, 20
random sampling, 284-286
confusing with subjective claim, 22, 201
Rational Discussion. See Principle of
"only" claim, 161
Rational Discussion,
"only i f " , 126
rationality, 62
opinion, 22, 24
reasoning by analogy. See analogy,
"or" claim, 113-118
reasoning backwards, 129,130.
contradictory of, 115
See also arguing backwards;
exclusive, formalization of, 360, 365
affirming the consequent,
inclusive, formalization of, 560-361
reasoning from hypotheses, 134
reasoning in a chain with "all", 165, 200
particular categorical claim, 375
reasoning in a chain with "almost all",
particular causal claim, 303
172, 200
percentages, 268-269
reasoning in a chain with conditionals,
perfectionist dilemma, 119
/ J 2 - 1 3 3
personal experience in
reasoning in a chain with "some",
evaluating claims, 84—85
165, 200
personal standards, 20
reducing to the absurd, 150
persuasive definition, 27, 181
refutation, phony, 9 9 , 1 5 1 , 2 0 1
phony refutation, 99, 151,201
refuting an argument, 98, 149-152
plausible claim, 38
by analogy, 150,257
confusing with possible, 97
directly, 149
population, 280
See also phony refutation; strawman;
cause and effect in, 320
slippery slope; ridicule,
variation in, 290
relevance, 68-69, 202
post hoc ergo propter hoc reasoning,
repairing arguments. See Guide to Repairing
308-309
Arguments; unrepairable arguments,
precise generalities, 170
representative sample, 284-286
predicate of a categorical claim, 375
reversing cause and effect, 308
premise, 5
ridicule, 151, 184, 202
adding or deleting. See Guide to
risk, 7 1 , 2 6 9 , 2 9 0 - 2 9 1
Repairing Arguments.
Index 441
sample, 280
truth-value, 3, 359
biased—, 283-254
making a judgment about, 84
haphazardly chosen, 284, 286
of compound claims, 362
randomly chosen, 284-286
two times zero is still zero, 268
representative —, 284-286
two wrongs make a right, 193
size of—, 287-288,290
scientific method. See cause, how to look for.
unbiased sample. See representative
selection bias, 323
sample.
selective attention, 286
uncontrolled experiment: cause-to-
shifting the burden of proof, 185, 202
effect, 321
slanters, 181,202
uncontrolled experiment: effect-to-
and good arguments, 185, 346
cause, 321-322
slippery slope argument, 133, 151,201
universal categorical claim, 375
"some" claim, 160
unrepairable arguments, 68
sound argument, 398
unstated premise or conclusion, 59
square of opposition, 379-380
See also Guide to Repairing
standard form of a categorical claim, 374
Arguments.
standard form of a categorical syllogism, 382
up-player, 783
standards
prescriptive claims and, 24-25
vague generalities, 171-172
subjectivity and, 19-20
vague sentence, 74
statistical generalization, 279, 289-290
in analogies, 256
statistics, 268-269, 273-274
valid argument, 39
strawman, 752, 202
checking with diagrams, 163-167
strong argument, 40-41
checking with truth-tables, 368-370
vs. valid argument, 48, 345
valid/invalid, strong to weak, 41
structural fallacy, 799-200
examples and showing not valid, 356
subalternate, 379
vs. strong argument, 48, 345
subcontrary of a claim, 378
valid argument form
subject of a categorical claim, 375
formalization of, 368
subjective claim, 20
using conditionals, 127-133, 200
confusing with objective claim, 22, 201
using general claims, 163-166, 200
linking behavior to thought, 67
value judgments, 24
subjectivist fallacy, 22
variation in a population, 290
sufficient condition, 724-125
violation of Principle of Rational Discussion,
suspending judgment, 61,84,90
60-61,202
syllogism, categorical, 387-383
virtue, 7, 351
syllo
gism, disjunctive, 117
synonym, 27
Warren, Chief Justice Earl, 224
weak argument, 40-41
tautology, 363
showing that argument is weak, 43, 357
testable cause, 314,317-318
weaseler, 184
tests for an argument to be good, 42
wishful thinking, 795
truth-tables, 359-372
Document Outline
Front Cover Contents
Preface to the Student
Preface to the Instructor
Acknowledgments
The FUNDAMENTALS 1 Critical Thinking? Writing Lesson 1
2 What Are We Arguing About? Writing Lesson 2
3 What Is a Good Argument? Writing Lesson 3
Cartoon Writing Lesson A
4 Repairing Arguments Writing Lesson 4
5 Is That True? Writing Lesson 5
Review Chapters 1-5
The STRUCTURE of ARGUMENTS 6 Compound Claims 1. Compound claims and "or" claims
2. The contradictory of a claim
3. Reasoning with "or" claims
4. False dilemmas
5 Conditionals and their contradictories
6 Necessary and sufficient conditions
7 Valid and weak forms of arguments using conditionals
8 Reasoning in a chain and the slippery slope
9 Reasoning from hypotheses
Writing Lesson 6
Cartoon Writing Lesson C
7 Counter-arguments Writing Lesson 7
8 General Claims Writing Lesson 8
Review Chapters 6-8
AVOIDING BAD ARGUMENTS 9 Concealed Claims
10 Too Much Emotion
11 Fallacies A summary of bad arguments A. What is a Fallacy?
B. Structural Fallacies
C. Content Fallacies
D. Violating the Principle of Rational Discussion
E. Is This Really a Mistake?
F. So It's Bad, So What?
Writing Lesson 9
Cartoon Writing Lesson D
ARGUMENTS for ANALYSIS Short Arguments for Analysis
Complex Arguments for Analysis
REASONING ABOUT OUR EXPERIENCE 12 Reasoning by Analogy Writing Lesson 10
13 Numbers?
14 Generalizing
15 Cause and Effect Writing Lesson 11
Review Chapters 12-15
Evaluating Reasoning Cartoon Writing Lesson E
Composing Good Arguments Cartoon Writing Lesson F
Writing Lesson 12
Making Decisions
APPENDICES Using Examples in Reasoning
Truth-Tables
Aristotelian Logic
Diagramming Arguments
Glossary
Answers to Selected Exercises
Index
Back Cover