by Frank McLynn
VILLA AT HIS ZENITH
The O'Hea Reminiscences are particularly valuable here, as is John Reed's Insurgent Mexico (London 1969). See also Reed's articles in The Sun, January 1914, in Metropolitan Magazine, February 1914, and in The World, March-May 1914. On Reed's relationship with Villa see additionally Jim Tuck, Pancho Villa and John Reed: Two Faces of Romantic Revolution (Tucson 1984); Manuel A. Machado, Centaur of the North: Francisco Villa, the Mexican Revolution, and Northern Mexico (Austin 1988); James C. Wilson, ed., John Reed for `The Masses' (Jefferson, North Carolina, 1987); Robert Rosenstone, Romantic Revolutionary: A Biography of john Reed (New York 1982); Jorge Ruffinelli, Reed en Mexico (Mexico City 1983); Tamara Hovey, John Reed: Witness to Revolution (New York 1982). For other eyewitness accounts of Villa see Francisco Urquizo, Recuerdo que ... (Mexico City 1985); Jessica Peterson and Thelma Cox Knowles, eds., Pancho Villa: Intimate Recollections by People who Knew Him (New York 1977); Juvenal (Enrique Perez Rul), ZQuien es Francisco Villa? (Dallas 1916); Carlos Badillo Soto, A sus ordenes mi general (Durango 1993).
For Chihuahua under the Villista hegemony and for Villa as governor of the state one can begin with Frank Tannenbaum's classic The Mexican Agrarian Revolution (Washington 193o) and then proceed to the more modern scholarly studies, viz: Friedrich Katz, `Pancho Villa as Revolutionary Governor of Chihuahua', in Georges Wolfskill and Douglas Richmond, eds., Essays on the Mexican Revolution: Revisionist Views of the Leaders (Austin 1979), pp. 26-31; Friedrich Katz, Villa: El gobernador revolucionario de Chihuahua (Chihuahua 1984); Friedrich Katz, `Pancho Villa's Agrarian Roots and Policies', in D. A. Brading, Caudillo and Peasant in the Mexican Revolution (Cambridge 1980); Friedrich Katz, `Agrarian Changes in Northern Mexico in the Period of Villista Rule', in James W. Wilkie et al., eds., Contemporary Mexico (Berkeley 1976); Florence and Robert Lister, Chihuahua: Storehouse of Storms (Albuquerque 1966); Oscar Betanzos et al, Historia de la cuestion agraria mexicana. Campesinos, terratenientes y revolucionarios, 1910-1920 (Mexico City 1988); Enrique Gonzalez Flores, Chihuahua de la independencia a la revolucion (Mexico City 1949); Manuel Gonzalez Ramirez, La revolucion social de Mexico, 3 vols (Mexico City 1966); William K. Meyers, `Pancho Villa and the Multinationals: United States Mining Interests in Villista Mexico, 1913-1915', 7LAS 23 (1991), PP. 339-363; Gral Matias Pazuengo, Historia de la revolucion en Durango (Cuernavaca 1915); Franciso R. Almada, La revolucion en el estado de Chihuahua, 2 vols (Mexico City 1965); Graziella Altamirano and Guadalupe Villa, Chihuahua: Una historic compartida, 1824-1921 (Chihuahua 1988). For the treatment of the Spanish see Josefina MacGregor, Mexico y Espana del porfiriato a la revolucion (Mexico City 1992); Clara E. Lida, ed., Tres aspectos de la presencia espanola en Mexico durante el porfiriato (Mexico City 1981).
A good study of Villa's marshals is needed. There are some pointers in the legendary ballads, as examined in Enrique Sanchez, Corridos de Pancho Villa (Mexico City 1952) and Antonio Avita Hernandez, Corridos de Durango (Mexico City 1989). The idea of Villa poised between the angel of light (Felipe Angeles) and the angel of darkness (Fierro) has been a popular one and is the theme of several studies: Enrique Krauze, Francisco Villa: Entre el angel y elfierro (Mexico City 1987); Bernardino Mena Brito, El lugarteniente gris de Pancho Villa (Mexico City 1938); Jorge Mejia Prieto, Las dos almas de Pancho Villa (Mexico City 199o). The classic source for Fierro is Martin Luis Guzman's The Eagle and the Serpent (New York 1965). Whether it was Fierro or Villa himself who killed Benton is discussed in Benavides, De Francisco Madero already cited, and Clarence C. Clendenen, The United States and Pancho Villa: A Study in Unconventional Diplomacy (New York 1972). See also Guzman, Memoirs of Pancho Villa, op. cit., and Reed's Insurgent Mexico.
For Villa as movie star see Aurelio de los Reyes, Con Villa en Mexico: Testimonios de camarografos norteamericanos en la revolucion (Mexico City 1985) and for Raoul Walsh's account consult his autobiography Each Man in his Time (New York 1974). For the wider cinematic ramifications of Villa see Aurelio de los Reyes, Cine y sociedad en Mexico (Mexico City 1981); Margarita Orellana, La mirada circular: el cine norteamericano de la revolucion mexicana, 1911-1917 (Mexico City 1991); Clifford Irving, Tom Mix and Pancho Villa (New York 1982) and Deborah Mistron, `The Role of Pancho Villa in the Mexican and American Cinema', Studies in Latin American Popular Culture 2 (1983), PP. 1-13.
THE END OF HUERTA
Woodrow Wilson dominates the story of Mexico in 1914. There is a huge literature both on him and the gunboat diplomacy in Vera Cruz of which the following are typical. On Wilson's policy in general: Arthur S. Link, The Papers of Woodrow Wilson, 69 vols (Princeton 1994), Wilson: The New Freedom (Princeton 1956), Woodrow Wilson and the Progressive Era, 1910-1917 (New York 1963) and Wilson, 5 vols (Princeton 1965); J. M. Blum, Woodrow Wilson and the Politics of Morality (Boston 1956); Louis M. Teitelbaum, Woodrow Wilson and the Mexican Revolution, 1913-1916 (New York 1967); Dirk W. Raat, Mexico and the United States: Ambivalent Vistas (Athens, Georgia 1992); Mark T. Guilderhus, PanAmerican Visions: Woodrow Wilson in the Western Hemisphere, 1913-1921 (Tucson 1986) and Guilderhus, Diplomacy and Revolution: US-Mexican Relations under Wilson and Carranza (Tucson 1977). On the intervention in Vera Cruz see Robert E. Quirk, An Affair of Honor: Woodrow Wilson and the Occupation of Vera Cruz (New York 1964); John S. D. Eisenhower, Intervention! The United States and the Mexican Revolution, 1913-1917 (New York 1993); Berta Ulloa, La revolucion intervenida: relaciones diplomaticas entre Mexico y los Estados Unidos, 1910-1914 (Mexico City 1971); Charles C. Cumberland, `Huerta y Carranza ante la ocupacion de Veracruz', Historia Mexicana 6 (1957), PP. 534-47; Berta Ulloa, `Carranza y el armamiento norteamericano', Historia Mexicana 17 (1967), pp. 253-61; Leonardo Pasquel, La revolucion en el estado de Vera Cruz, 2 vols (Mexico City 1972).
Works on US agents of various stripe who had contacts with Villa include: Hugh L. Scott, Some Memories of a Soldier (New York 1928); Joseph P. Tumulty, Woodrow Wilson As I Knew Him (New York 1921); Will B. Davis, Experiences and Observations of an American Consular Official During the Recent Mexican Revolution (Chula Vista 1920); Larry D. Hill, Emissaries to a Revolution: Woodrow Wilson's Executive Agents in Mexico (Baton Rouge 1973); George M. Stephenson, John Lind of Minnesota (Minnesota 1935); Dorothy Pierson Kerig, Luther T. Ellsworth, US Consul on the Border During the Mexican Revolution (El Paso 1975); Gene Z. Hanrahan, Blood Below the Border. American Eyewitness Accounts of the Mexican Revolution (1983); see also Hanrahan, Abajo el gringo ... Anti-American Sentiment During the Mexican Revolution (1982)..
The disappearing Ambrose Bierce has generated his own industry. Representative titles include: Paul Fatout, Ambrose Bierce: The Devil's Lexicographer (Norman, Oklahoma 1951); Carey McWilliams, The Mysteries of Ambrose Bierce (New York 1931); Roy Morris, Ambrose Bierce: Alone in Bad Company (New York 1995); Richard O'Connor, Ambrose Bierce: A Biography (Boston 1967) and, of course, the fictional treatment by Carlos Fuentes, The Old Gringo (New York 1985). Other American writers who made significant trips south of the border include Lincoln Steffens, for whom see The Autobiography of Lincoln Steffens, 2 vols (New York 1931) and Justin Kaplan, Lincoln Steffens: A Biography (New York 1974). Jack London's animadversions can be followed in Philip S. Foner, ed., The Social Writings of Jack London (New York 1964); Andrew Sinclair, Jack (1978); Robert Barltrop, Jack London: The Man, the Writer, the Rebel (1976) and Alex Kershaw, Jack London: A Life (1997)• On Mother Jones see Philip S. Foner, Mother Jones Speaks: Collected Writings and Speeches (New York 1983).
1914 was also the year when the Great Powers became sucked into the Mexican conflict. Of the many volumes devoted to this issue the following are noteworthy: Isidro Fabela, Historia diplomktica de la revolucion mexicana, 2 vols (Mexico City 1985); Carlos Iliades, Mexico.y Espana durante la revolucion mexicana (Mexico City 1985); Lorenzo Meyer, Su Majestad Britanica contra la revolucion mexicana, 1900-1950: Elfin de un imperio informal (Mexico City 1991); Pierre Py, Francia y la revolucion mexicana, 1910-1920: la desaparicion de una potencia mediana (Mexico City 1991); Espera
nza Duran, Guerra y revolucion: las grandes potencias y Mexico, 1914-1918 (Mexico City 1985); William S. Coker, `Mediacion Britanica en el conflicto Wilson-Huerta', Historia Mexicana 18 (1968), pp. 224-57; Thomas Baecker, Die Deutsche Mexikopolitik 1913-14 (Berlin 1971).
The shadowy German policy towards Huerta is traced in Michael C. Meyer, `The Arms of Ypiranga', HAHR 50 (1970), pp. 453-56; Thomas Baecker, `The Arms of the Ypiranga: The German Side', Americas 30 (1973), pp. 1-17; Thomas Baecker, `Los intereses militares del imperio Aleman en Mexico, 1913-14', Historia Mexicana 29 (1972); and above all in Friedrich Katz's The Secret War in Mexico (Chicago 1981). The increasingly important issue of oil is dealt with in Jonathan C. Brown, Oil and Revolution in Mexico (Berkeley 1993); Kenneth J. Grieb, `Standard Oil and the Financing of the Mexican Revolution', California Historical Society Quarterly 50 (1971), pp. 59-71; Lorenzo Meyer and Isidro Morales, Petroleo y nacion (lgoo-x987) (Mexico City 199o); H. Knowlton, History of Standard Oil Company (New Jersey): The Resurgent Years 1911-27 (New York 1956); Charles W. Hamilton, Early Oil Tales of Mexico (Houston 1966).
For Villa's triumphant campaign in 1914 an excellent and often overlooked study is Federico Cervantes, Francisco Villa y la revolucion (Mexico City 1960). For this campaign see also Sergio Candelas Villalba, La batalla de Zacatecas (Zacatecas 1989); Aldo Caserini, Le battaglie di Pancho Villa: L'eopoea della rivoluzione messicana (Azzate, Italy 1972) and the publication by Instituto Nacional de Estudios Historicos de la Revolucion Mexicana entitled Toma de Torreon. Villa's army is examined in Arturo Langle Ramirez, El ejercito villista (Mexico City 1961); E. Brondo Whitt, La division del Norte (1914) por un testigo presencial (Mexico City 1940); Guadalupe Gracia Garcia, El servicio medico durante la revolucion mexicana and Luis Aguirre Benavides and Afrian Aguirre Benavides, Las grandes batallas de la Division del Norte (Mexico City 1979).
The last days of Huerta are covered in Berta Ulloa, La revolucion escindida (Mexico City 1979); Kenneth J. Grieb, The United States and Huerta (Lincoln, Nebraska 1969); Paul V. Henderson, `Woodrow Wilson, Victoriano Huerta, and the Recognition Issue in Mexico', Americas 41 (1984), pp. 151-76; Alfonso Taracena, La verdadera revolucion mexicana (1913-1914) (Mexico City 1967); George Rauch, `The Exile and Death of Victoriano Huerta,' HAHR 42 (1962), pp. 133-51; and in a plethora of eyewitness accounts, especially the already cited Edith O'Shaughnessy, A Diplomat's Wife in Mexico and Mrs Alec Tweedie's Mexico from Diaz to the Kaiser.
THE CONVENTION OF AGUASCALIENTES
For Carranza's crucial role in the six months after Huerta's overthrow see John Mason Hart, Revolutionary Mexico: The Coming and Process of the Mexican Revolution (Berkeley 1987); Adolfo Gilly, La revolucion interrum- pida (Mexico City 1994); Charles C. Cumberland, Mexican Revolution: The Constitutionalist Years (Austin 1972); Alfonso Junco, Carranza y los origenes de su rebelion (Mexico City 1955); Ignacio Suarez, Carranza forjador del Mexico actual (Mexico City 1965). For Zapata continue with the works by Womack and Brunk and see, additionally, Jose T. Melendez, Historia de la revolucion mexicana (Mexico City 1936); Armando de Maria y Campos, La vida del general Lucio Blanco (Mexico City 1963); T. V. Buttrey and Adon Gordus, `The Silver Coinage of Zapata, 1914-1915', HAHR 52 (1972), pp. 456-62. H. H. Dunn, The Crimson jester: Zapata of Mexico (New York 1934) is remarkable only because it gives credence to the absurd stories about Zapata's alleged atrocities.
Conditions in Mexico City at this time are the subject of Francisco Ramirez Plancarte, La ciudad de Mexico durante la revolucion constituciona- lista (Mexico City 1941). The urban proletariat of Mexico City and elsewhere has attracted a lot of attention: Alan Knight, `The Working Class and the Mexican Revolution, C.1900-1920', JLAS 16 (1984); Rodney Anderson, Outcasts in Their Own Land: Mexican Industrial Workers, 1906-1911 (De Kalb, Illinois 1976); Barry Carr, El Movimiento Obrero y la Politica en Mexico, 191o-1929, 2 vols (Mexico City 1976); Rosendo Salazar, La casa del obrero mundial (Mexico City 1962); Ciro F. S. Cardoso et al., La clase obrera en la historia de Mexico, de la dictadura porfirista a los tiempos libertarios (Mexico City 1980); John M. Hart, Anarchism and the Mexican Working Class, 186o-1931 (Austin 1978); Jean Meyer, `Los batallones rojos de la revolucion mexicana', Historia Mexicana 21 (1971), pp. 1-37; Jean Meyer, `Les Ouvriers dans la Revolution Mexicaine: Les Bataillons Rouges', Annales ESC 25 (1970), pp. 30-35.
The amazing adventures of Obregon while Villa's `guest' can be followed in a number of (often contradictory) sources. There is Obregon's own account in the boastful Ocho mil kilometros en campana (Mexico City 1970) which can be supplemented by Francis C. Kelley, Blood Drenched Altars (Milwaukee 1935). Then there are the Villista accounts: by Silvestre Terrazas, El verdadero Pancho Villa, op. cit.; by Luz Corral, Pancho Villa en la intimidad, op. cit.; by other Villistas, as in Juvenal, zQuien es Francisco Villa?, op. cit.; and Federico Cervantes, Francisco Villa y la revolucion, op. cit. See also Luis Aguirre Benavides, De Francisco Madero, op. cit.; Enrique Krauze, Plutarco E. Calles: Reformar desde el origen (Mexico City 1987) and Ruben Osorio Zuniga, Pancho Villa, ese desconocido (Chihuahua 1991). The conflicts between Obregon, Hill and Maytorena are delineated in Hector Aguilar Camin, La frontera nomada: Sonora y la revolucion mexicana (Mexico City 1977).
The convention at Aguascalientes has generated a sizeable literature: Robert E. Quirk, The Mexican Revolution, 1914-1915: The Convention of Aguascalientes (Bloomington, Indiana 1960); Luis Fernando Amaya, La soberana convencion revolucionaria, 1914-1916 (Mexico City 1966); Vito Alessio Robles, La convencion en Aguascalientes (Mexico City 1979); Florencio Barrera Fuentes, Cronicas y debates de las sesiones de la soberana convention revolucionaria, 3 vols (Mexico City 1965); Jose de Jesus Medillin, Las ideas agrarias en la convention de Aguascalientes (Mexico City 1986); Richard Roman, Ideologia y clase en la revolution mexicana: La convention y el congreso constituyente (Mexico City 1976). The great setpiece description of Soto y Gama at Aguascalientes is in Martin Luis Guzman's The Eagle and the Serpent already cited.
THE CONVERGENCE OF THE TWAIN
The entry of the zapatistas into Mexico City and subsequent events are described in a number of accounts: Hudson Strode, Timeless Mexico (New York 1944); Randolph Welford Smith, Benighted Mexico (New York 1916) and Leone B. Moates, Thunder in their Veins, op. cit. Surprisingly, neither Womack, Zapata nor Katz, Villa treat of the VillaZapata meeting in any detail, but there is a protracted look, drawing copiously on the reports to the US State Department by American envoy Leon Canova, in Enrique Krauze, Siglo de Caudillos: Biografia politica de Mexico 7870-rgro (Mexico City 1994). See also Herlinda Barrientos et al., Con Zapata y Villa; tres relatos testimoniales (Mexico City 1991). The pact of Xochimilco is laid out in Manuel Gonzalez Ramirez, Fuentes para la historia de la revolution: Planes politicos y otros documentos, vol i (Mexico City 1974). For Lucio Blanco as the possible bridge between the two see Jorge Aguilar Mora, Una Muerte sencilla, justa y eterna: Cultura y guerra durante la revolucion mexicana (Mexico City 199o) and Jose C. Valades, Rafael Buelna: Las caballerias de la revolucion (Mexico City 1984). On the lost opportunity of December 1914 see Octavio Paz, Postdata (Mexico City 1970).
For the ideology of Zapatismo and its contrasts with Villismo see Knight, Mexican Revolution, op. cit. passim. Other important studies are Arturo Warman, `The Political Project of Zapatismo', in Friedrich Katz, ed., Riot, Rebellion and Revolution: Rural Social Conflict in Mexico (Princeton 1988); Warman, Y Venimos a Contradecir, op. cit.; Robert A. White, `Mexico: The Zapata Movement and the Revolution', in Henry A. Landsberger, ed., Latin American Peasant Movements (Cornell 1969); Robert P. Millon, Zapata: The Ideology of a Peasant Revolutionary, op. cit.; Friedrich Katz, `Peasants in the Mexican Revolution of 1910', in Joseph Spielberg and Scott Whiteford, eds., Forging Nations: A Comparative View of Rural Ferment and Revolt (Michigan 1976); Franz J. Schryer, The Rancheros of Pisaflores: The History of a Peasant Bourgeoisie in Twentieth-Century Mexico (Toronto 1980); Dudley Ankerson, Agrarian Warlord: Saturnino Cedillo and the Mexican Revolution in San Luis Potosi (De Kalb, Illinois 1984
); Jane Dale-Lloyd, `Rancheros and Rebellion', in Daniel Nugent, ed., Rural Revolt in Mexico and US Intervention (San Diego 1988); Laura Lopez de Lara, ed., El agrarismo en Villa (Mexico City 1982). The question of `social banditry' is a huge, complex and much-discussed issue. In a Mexican context one can do no more than scratch the surface. See Eric Hobsbawm, Primitive Rebels (1965) and Bandits (1969); Richard W. Slatta, ed, Bandidos: The Variety of Latin American Banditry (New York 1987) and Eric Wolf, Peasant Wars of the Twentieth Century (1973); see also Anton Blok, `The Peasant and the Brigand: Social Banditry Reconsidered', Comparative Studies in Society and History 14 (1972), pp. 494-503.
For events in the south-east and the inroads made by Carranza's proconsuls there see Allan Wells, Yucatan's Guilded Age: Haciendas, Henequen and International Harvester, i86o-i9r5 (Albuquerque 1985); Gilbert M. Joseph, Revolution from Without: Yucatan, Mexico and the United States, i88o-x924 (Durham, North Carolina 1980); Jorge Glores, `La vida rural en Yucatan en 1914', Historia Mexicana 10 (1961); Luz Elena Arroyo Irigoyen and Maria del Carmen Barreneche, El cambio social en sureste de Mexico: Dos estudios (Mexico City 1985); Alicia Hernandez Chavez, `La defensa de los finqueros en Chiapas, 1914-1920', Historia Mexicana 28 (1979), PP. 335-69; Gilbert M. Joseph and A. Wells, `Seasons of Upheaval: The Crisis of Oligarchical Rule in Yucatan, 1901-1915', in Jaime E. Rodriguez, ed., The Revolutionary Process in Mexico: Essays on Political and Social Change (Los Angeles 1990), pp. 161-85. A useful contrast can be drawn between the south-east and the other areas of rural Mexico at the time, as described in Raymond Buve, El movimiento revolucionario de Tlaxcala (Tlaxcala 1994) and David G. La France, The Mexican Revolution in Puebla, op. cit.