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Acknowledgments
MANY BRILLIANT AND generous people helped with this book. I want first to thank Thomas W. Gilligan, the Tad Taube Director of the Hoover Institution, Stanford University, for his leadership and commitment to making Hoover a stimulating place for academic excellence, and Eric Wakin, the Robert H. Malott Director of Library and Archives at the Hoover Institution, for his unfailing support and encouragement of both my research and my curatorial work. My appreciation also goes to my other colleagues at Hoover who have and continue to go out of their way to make this place a great place for academic pursuits: David Brady, Lanhee Chen, Chris Dauer, Larry Diamond, Paul Gregory, Thomas H. Henriksen, Herb Klein, Tai-chun Kuo, Stephen Langlois, Alice L. Miller, Ramon H. Myers, Lisa Nguyen, Alvin Rabushka, John Raisian, Henry S. Rowen, Anatol Shmelev, Maciej Siekierski, Richard Sousa, Danielle Scott Taylor, Paul Thomas, E. Ann Wood, and Amy Zegart. I owe an enormous intellectual debt to the following scholars and friends who read all or part of the manuscript and provided critical and invaluable comments, suggestions, and criticism: Ming K. Chan, Cheng David Chang, Joseph W. Esherick, John Garver, Chi-kwan Mark, Leo Soong, Paul H. Tai, and Wen-hsin Yeh.
Parts of this text have been presented at seminars, workshops, and conferences at St. Antony’s College at Oxford University, the Institute of Modern History at the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (Beijing), the School of International Studies at Renmin University of China (Beijing), the Department of History at Peking University (Beijing) and at Fudan University (Shanghai), the Academia Historica (Taipei), the National Tsing Hua University of Taiwan, the National Cheng Kung University of Taiwan, and the National Institute for Defense Studies of the Japanese Ministry of Defense (Tokyo). I greatly appreciate all the helpful suggestions from those attending, especially Li Chang, Su-ya Chang, Hsiang-ke Chao, Hsin-chih Chen, Li-wen Chen, Yung-fa Chen, Hsi-sheng Ch’i, Duan Ruicong, Tien-sze Fang, Madoka Fukuda, Thomas Gold, Emily Hill, Max Ko-wu Huang, Nobu Iwatani, Jin Yilin, Shin Kawashima, Xiaogang Lai, Li Chen, Tung-fa Lin, Wei-kai Liu, Fang-shang Lu, Yasuhiro Matsuda, Luo Min, Rana Mitter, Niu Dayong, Shen Zhihua, Junichiro Shoji, Kyoichi Tachikawa, Steve Tsang, Hans Van de Ven, Wang Chaoguang, Wang Jianlang, Peter Chen-main Wang, Wu Jingping, Su-feng Wu, Tatsuo Yamada, Yang Kuisong, Yang Tianshi, and Zhang Baijia.
My special thanks to the staff for their assistance in the following libraries and archives, where I spent hours sifting through primary-source materials and poring over reels of microfilmed and digitized documents related to my research: U.S. National Archives and Records Administration II (Maryland), Hoover Institution Archives and Cecil H. Green Library of Stanford University (California), British National Archives (London), Academia Historica
(Taipei), and Archives of the Institute of Modern History, Academia Sinica (Taipei). Outstanding graduate student assistants in the United States and Taiwan were Hsin-min Chang, Chiao-chun Cheng, Shan-yao Yang, Yundi You, and Zhai Xiang. I am also grateful to Wenlung Wang, curator at the Kuomintang Party History Institute (Taipei), for permission to reproduce some of the photographs in this book.
Kathleen McDermott, my principal editor at Harvard University Press, was a splendid collaborator in bringing the book to life; her encouragement and helpful advice are deeply appreciated. My special thanks also to Stephanie Vyce, Michael Higgins, Katrina Vassallo, Anne Zarrella, Deborah Grahame-Smith, and Carol Noble, whose enthusiasm and support for this project never flagged. The two anonymous readers provided useful suggestions for revisions; their input and criticism have made the book even better. I am also grateful for the insightful comments from the Harvard University Press Board of Syndics. Although all those individuals contributed to this work, I am responsible for any mistakes or flaws.
Finally, my family was incredibly supportive as I wrote this book. My parents, Wen-huei Lin and Pei-hua Kuo, have always provided constant encouragement. My wife, Hai-lei, supplied affection, care, endurance, and inspiration. My sons, Ian and Ethan, enrich my life and gave me the courage to undertake this project.
Index
Accinelli, Robert, 157, 174
Acheson, Dean, 79, 97, 159, 163, 174; on Chiang as leader of Free China, 192; on economic aid to Taiwan, 52; and Formosa League for Re-emancipation, 132, 133; Kennan memorandum to, 199; Lapham memorandum to, 86; Li meeting with (1950), 121; and MacArthur, 172, 175; on military aid to Nationalists, 107, 108, 128; and nonintervention policy of U.S., 170; and privatizing U.S. policy toward Nationalist China, 141–142, 143; on Sun, 80; on uncertain status of Taiwan, 172; and Yunnan independence movement, 117
Aid from U.S., 7; Butterworth on, 127–128; to Chiang, 113–114; in coup plans against Chiang, 160; Fox report recommendations on, 175, 189; to Hainan Island, 7, 125; Kerr recommendations on, 52, 57; Koo request for, 107; Lapham on, 86, 101; Liao request for, 131; Li request for, 107–108; Madame Chiang lobbying for, 74, 77; for mainland recovery plans, 209–210, 223, 224; mainland recovery strategy as requirement for, 204; military budget in, 189–194; to non-Communists, 78–79, 108–109; privatization of, 141–169; to regional leaders, 7, 71, 109, 110, 113, 116, 124; Soong requesting, 64; to Southwest China, 109, 110; and Yunnan independence movement, 116–118
Allied powers, 249n1; in Cairo Conference, 3, 14, 19–20; in early post-colonial Taiwan, 35–36, 37, 38; MacArthur as commander of, 46; military operations against Japanese facilities in Taiwan, 25; and postwar plans for Taiwan, 23, 29; supporting lost territories of China, 20, 21, 23; Supreme Commander for (See Supreme Commander for Allied Powers)
Americanization of Nationalist military, 194
American Liaison Group, 36–37, 38
Ammunition. See Military supplies
Amoy, 27, 219, 227
Badger, Oscar C., 107–108, 113, 114, 127
Bai Chongxi, 56, 61, 75, 83–84, 89–90; aid from U.S. to, 113; control of Central China, 83, 84, 101, 106–107, 266n7; defending Guangzhou, 115; on exiled Nationalist forces in Vietnam, 138
Baituan military training, 220–221, 299n16
Bandit suppression, 62, 63, 68, 82, 112, 116
Bank of Taiwan, 94, 191
Barr, David, 67, 86
Barrett, David, 140, 155
Big Four powers, 14, 249n1
Blake, Ralph J., 42–43, 49–52
Blockade of Chinese coast by Nationalists, 198
Brennan, James, 76–77
Britain: in Cairo Conference, 3, 14, 19–20; concerns about mainland recovery strategies, 206, 207; economic interests in Guangdong Province, 65–66; encouraging separatist movement in South China, 69; expectations on outcome of Chinese civil war, 68–69; and February 1947 incident, 51; military supplies from, 142; in peace negotiations, 178; and UN plan on Taiwan, 176–177
Burma, 16; Nationalist forces in, 11, 137, 138, 211–215
Butterworth, W. Walton, 127–128
Cairo Conference, 3, 14, 18, 19, 30, 239; Declaration from, 19, 23, 30, 132
Causeway Operation, 26
Central China, Bai Chongxi in control of, 83, 84, 101, 106–107, 266n7
Central Club Clique (CC Clique), 32, 75
Central Reform Committee (CRC), 93f, 180–183, 181f, 201
Chase, William: advisory and training activities of MAAG under, 169, 193, 218; appointed as chief of MAAG, 168; and Baituan military training program, 222; Chiang meeting with, 190f, 228; and Japanese military advisors, 220, 299n16; on Kai plan, 224; and military budget of Nationalists, 189, 190–191, 195; proposed trip to Vietnam, 210; and Sun, 186
Chen Cheng, 6, 8, 90–97, 93f, 180, 235, 265n99; appointment as premier, 121–122, 123; and Chiang, 6, 79, 81, 82, 90–97, 104–105, 106, 265n99; economic measures of, 93–94; as governor of Taiwan, 77, 82, 90–97; land reform program of, 95, 183; and Li, 6, 91–93, 100, 105; martial law declared by, 95; and Merchant, 79; political prisoners taken by, 185; resignation of, 120; and Sun, 79–81, 88, 105–106; and Wu, 90, 114, 120, 121–122, 129, 136
Chen, James, 133, 134, 135
Chen Jitang, 105, 124–126, 139–140, 152
Chen Yi, 3, 30–32, 40f; corruption and administration problems, 41–42, 45; and early post-colonial Taiwan, 35–54; and February 1947 incident, 4, 40, 45–49, 50; as governor of Fujian province, 30, 31, 35; Wei Daoming replacing, 54, 55
Cheng Qian, 106
Chennault, Claire, 113, 136, 154, 214
Chiang Ching-kuo, 53, 77, 93f, 118, 135, 136, 162, 180; military influence of, 193; political commissar system of, 186, 193; requesting U.S. aid, 226; and Sun, 186; and Wu, 186–187
Chiang Kai-shek: aid from U.S. to, 113–114; air force officers demanding concessions from, 91; assassination plans, 123; and Cairo Conference, 3, 14, 18, 19; Chase meeting with, 190f, 228; and Chen Cheng, 6, 79, 81, 82, 90–97, 104–105, 106, 265n99; and Chen Yi, 30, 31, 35, 40, 42, 44–45, 47–48, 49, 52, 53; China’s Destiny, 18; considering pro-Moscow policy, 85; and Cooke, 8, 144–157, 161–169; coup plans against, 7, 120, 121, 159–161, 162, 171, 201–202, 290n66; criticisms of KMT, 135; death of, 239; declining influence of, 82–99; and Dongshan peninsula raid, 217–218; early postwar visit to Taiwan (1946), 43–44, 44f; and February 1947 incident, 4, 47–48, 49, 51; first visit to Taiwan (1921), 15; and Formosa League for Re-emancipation, 133, 134–135; in Guangzhou, 92, 100; and Hainan Island abandonment, 126, 140; and Hainan Island recovery plans, 205, 206–207, 225–226; as head of KMT party, 54, 83; hoping for World War III, 9, 174, 203; on Japanese legacy in Taiwan, 43; Japanese military advisors of, 116, 219–222; Jotaro meeting with (1927), 15–16; and Kai plan, 223–225, 226, 227; and KMT Extraordinary Committee, 100; and Korean War, 173–174, 177, 196–197, 202–204, 216; and Legislative Yuan election (1948), 75; Li meeting with (1949), 89, 100; on lost territories, 15, 16; Lu Hun planning kidnapping of, 118; and MacArthur, 98, 143, 156, 161–163, 171, 174–176, 175f, 204; and mainland recovery strategies (See Mainland recovery strategies); on Manchuria situation, 44; maritime strategies, 197–198, 207–209, 217–218; and marooned Nationalist forces on mainland, 136, 139; and Military Assistance Advisory Group, 188–194; military budget under, 188–193; military defeat in North China, 58, 61; military transformation under, 187–195; and mutual defense treaty with U.S., 226–234; Nix meeting with (1950), 157–158; Northern Expedition of, 15; opposing negotiations with Communists, 43; and patron-client state relationship with U.S., 12, 173; and peace negotiations with Japan, 178–179; Philippines visit (1949), 101–102, 103f; on postwar restoration of Chinese territories, 18–19, 20; and Quirino, 101–102, 103f; reforms of, 135–136, 166, 180–183, 187–188, 240; resignation/retirement from presidency, 5–6, 74, 75, 77, 78, 82–99; resuming presidency, 120–122, 123, 136, 144; retreat to Taiwan, 1, 119; Rhee meeting with (1949), 102–104, 104f; selecting Guangdong Province as Nationalis
t base on mainland, 62; and Soong, 64, 67, 68, 90; South Korea visit, 102–104; and STP program of Cooke, 8; strategic triangle in Southeast China, 6, 85–86, 92, 96; stress and insomnia of, 263n66; and Stuart, 53, 61; and Sun, 10, 60–61, 80, 88, 96, 105, 113, 123, 185–186, 202, 290n66; Taiwan as territorial refuge for, 77–78; and Third Force Chinese, 7, 8, 184–185, 197; transferring national reserves out of Shanghai, 77, 82–83, 139, 265–266nn2–3; and Truman administration, 73–74, 128–129, 157–161, 176; on uncertain status of Taiwan, 172–173; and UN resolution on Taiwan, 176–177; U.S. policy of limited support for, 69, 74; as war criminal, 89; and Wedemeyer, 90; and Wu, 186–187; and Yunnan independence movement, 114–118; and Yunnan power struggle, 109–112; Zhang meeting with, 84–85
Chiang Kai-shek, Madame, 43–44, 44f, 97, 98, 113, 208, 263n66; Washington visit, 73–74, 77
China: civil war in (See Civil war, Chinese); constitutions drafted, 16; Nationalist (See Nationalist China); one-China policy, 2; People’s Republic of (See People’s Republic of China); at war with Japan, 3, 15, 16–17, 19, 249n1
China Democratic Revolutionary Party, 135
China’s Destiny (Chiang Kai-shek), 18
China White Paper, 59, 113
Chinese Communist Party (CCP), 1, 8–9; Chiang opposing negotiations with, 43; in civil war with Nationalists (See Civil war, Chinese); on Hainan Island, 68; in Manchuria, 44; Marshall negotiations with, 43, 45; military of (See Military of Chinese Communists); peace negotiations with Chinese Nationalists, 74, 75, 84, 89; Peng meeting with representatives of, 97
Chinese Maritime Customs Service, 93, 268n43, 279n10
Chinese Nationalist Party (Kuomintang or KMT), 1; Centrally Administered Taiwan Executive Committee, 17; Central Organization Department, 17; Central Party Headquarters, 17; Central Reform Committee, 93f, 180–183, 181f, 201; Chiang Kai-shek as head of, 54, 83; in civil war with Communists (See Civil war, Chinese); Extraordinary Committee, 100; Guangdong Province selected as mainland base for, 61–62; Investigation and Statistic Bureau, 133; Kerr on, 87; Marshall negotiations with, 43, 45; military of (See Military of Chinese Nationalists); national security campaigns, 8, 162; peace negotiations with Chinese Communists, 74, 75, 84, 89; in South China, 62–68
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