The Mansion of Happiness

by Jill Lepore

  25. See Laqueur, “Orgasm,” and also Mary E. Fissell, Vernacular Bodies: The Politics of Reproduction in Early Modern England (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), and Frederick B. Churchill, “The History of Embryology as Intellectual History,” Journal of the History of Biology 3 (1970): 155–81.

  26. Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan (London, 1651), “Introduction.”

  27. Edward G. Ruestow, “Images and Ideas: Leeuwenhoek’s Perception of the Spermatozoa,” Journal of the History of Biology 16 (1983): 185–224, especially 194. See also Farley, Gametes & Spores, 17.

  28. Aubrey, Brief Lives, 1:301.

  29. Although both this motto and a misquotation of it, “Omne vivum ex ovo” (Everything living comes out of an egg), are often attributed to Harvey, they are not his. He did, however, apparently approve the text of the engraving (Keynes, Life of Harvey,334).

  30. Ruestow, “Images and Ideas,” 194–96. De Graaf quoted in Farley, Gametes & Spores, 16. The Collected Letters of Antoni van Leeuwenhoek, edited, illustrated, and annotated by a Committee of Dutch Scientists (Amsterdam: Swets & Zeitlinger, 1939), 1:29–35.

  31. Ruestow, “Images and Ideas,” 198–200. Leeuwenhoek to Christopher Wren, January 22, 1683, Letters of Leeuwenhoek, 4:11–13.

  32. Ruestow, “Images and Ideas,” 188.

  33. Letters of Leeuwenhoek, 1:67, 111, 119, 127.

  34. Ruestow, “Images and Ideas,” 188–89.

  35. For a curious account of the transmission of these ideas to New England, see Ava Chamberlain, “The Immaculate Ovum: Jonathan Edwards and the Construction of the Female Body,” William and Mary Quarterly 57 (2000): 289–322.

  36. Laqueur, “Orgasm,” 3, 18–19. See also Carole Pateman, The Sexual Contract (Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 1998).

  37. Quoted in Laqueur, “Orgasm,” 20.

  38. Lluelyn, “To the Incomparable Dr. Harvey.”

  39. Aldous Huxley, Brave New World (1931).

  40. Von Baer is quoted in C. R. Austin, The Mammalian Egg (Oxford: Blackwell, 1961), 4. But for a fuller account, see K. E. von Baer and George Sarton, “The Discovery of the Mammalian Egg and the Foundation of Modern Embryology,” Isis 16 (1931): 315–30, and the accompanying reprint of K. E. von Baer, De Ovi Mammalium et Hominis Genesi, 331–77.

  41. Squier, Babies in Bottles, 29–35.

  42. Gregory Pincus, The Eggs of Mammals (New York: Macmillan, 1936), 8–9. On Pincus and the Pill, see James Reed, From Private Vice to Public Virtue: The Birth Control Movement and American Society Since 1830 (New York: Basic Books, 1978), chapters 25–27.

  43. On the global travels of Mus musculus, see Clyde E. Keeler, The Laboratory Mouse: Its Origin, Heredity, and Culture (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1931), 4–6; on mice and heredity, 7–18. The best study of mice research in the twentieth century is Karen A. Rader, Making Mice: Standardizing Animals for American Biomedical Research, 1900–1955 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2004).

  44. Austin, Mammalian Egg, 4–6.

  45. Donald Pickens, Eugenics and the Progressives (Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 1968), 49.

  46. J. A. Long and E. L. Mark, The Maturation of the Egg of the Mouse (Washington, DC: Carnegie Institution, 1911), 1–6.

  47. Rader, Making Mice. On chickens, see P. B. Siegel, J. B. Dodgson, and L. Andersson, “Progress from Chicken Genetics to the Chicken Genome,” Poultry Science 85 (2006): 2050–60.

  48. Mall’s circular is reproduced in Lynn M. Morgan, Icons of Life: A Cultural History of Human Embryos (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009), 71–72.

  49. Morgan, Icons of Life, 74–75, 82, 93, 105, 136–37, 141, 149.

  50. J.B.S. Haldane, Daedalus; Or, Science and the Future (New York: Dutton, 1924), 63–65. Haldane gave the lecture in Cambridge on February 4, 1923. Discussions of Haldane’s vision include Spier, Babies in Bottles, chapter 2.

  51. Reed, From Private Vice to Public Virtue, 321. “Rabbits Born in Glass: Haldane-Huxley Fantasy Made Real by Harvard Biologists,” New York Times, May 13, 1934.

  52. Telegram, March 24, 1965, Lennart Nilsson file, Time Inc. Archives. “Drama of Life Before Birth,” Life, April 30, 1965. Miles Ruben, “Life Before Birth,” Saturday Evening Post, May–June 1978, 68–69. Joelle Bentley, “Photographing the Miracle of Life,” Technology Review 95 (November–December 1992): 58. Adrienne Gyongy, “Lennart Nilsson: Sweden’s Scientific Eye,” Scandinavian Review 80 (Winter 1992): 51–55.

  53. A good source on the development of the film, from Clarke’s point of view, is Arthur C. Clarke, The Lost Worlds of 2001 (Boston: Gregg Press, 1979). Interviews with Kubrick have been widely reprinted, most usefully in Stanley Kubrick: Interviews, ed. Gene D. Phillips (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2001). On Kubrick’s interest in Childhood’s End, see John Baxter, Stanley Kubrick: A Biography (New York: Carroll and Graf, 1997), chapter 12. See also Vincent LoBrutto, Stanley Kubrick: A Biography (New York: Donald I. Fine, 1997), 258–67. On the filming, see Piers Bizony, 2001: Filming the Future, with a foreword by Arthur C. Clarke (London: Aurum Press, 2000), which includes a facsimile of MGM’s February 23, 1965, press release announcing Kubrick’s collaboration with Clarke on Journey Beyond the Stars (10–11). And, for a compendium of material on Kubrick’s films, see Alison Castle, ed., The Stanley Kubrick Archives (Cologne: Taschen, 2005); a production calendar, compiled by Carolyn Geduld, is on pp. 373–75.

  54. “The Playboy Interview: Stanley Kubrick,” Playboy, September 1968. The complete interview is reprinted in Castle, ed., Stanley Kubrick Archives, 398–407.

  55. Reviews, diaries, and interviews are reproduced in The Making of 2001: A Space Odyssey, selected by Stephanie Schwam (New York: Modern Library, 2000). See especially pp. 5–8 and 83. Clarke’s diary entry for October 3, 1965, appears on p. 40.

  56. On the modeling of the baby, see Castle, ed., Stanley Kubrick Archives, 370. 2001: A Space Odyssey, directed by Stanley Kubrick (1968; Burbank, CA: Warner Home Video, 2007).

  57. Arthur C. Clarke, 2001: A Space Odyssey (New York: New American Library, 1968), 220–21.

  58. Clarke, 2001, 221.

  59. Jay Cocks, “SK,” introduction to The Making of 2001, xv–xvi.

  60. Schlesinger’s Vogue review is quoted in LoBrutto, Stanley Kubrick, 311. The remaining reviews are reproduced in The Making of 2001, and quotations are taken from 171, 144–47, 274. See also Barry Keith Grant, “Of Men and Monoliths,” in Stanley Kubrick’s 2001: A Space Odyssey: New Essays, edited by Robert Kolker (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), 69–86.

  61. “The Playboy Interview: Stanley Kubrick,” Playboy, September 1968. The Life review is reproduced in The Making of 2001, and the quotation is taken from p. 171.

  62. A replica of “the ultimate trip” movie poster can be found in Castle, ed., Stanley Kubrick Archives, 407.

  Chapter 2. BABY FOOD

  1. “Necessity on One Hand, Security on the Other,” New York Times, September 1, 2006. Transportation Security Administration, “New Policies for Lighters, Electronics, and Breast Milk,” http://www.tsa.gov/travelers/sop/index.shtm#milk. The TSA’s new policy went into effect on August 4, 2007 (Jeanne Oliver of the TSA to the author, July 25, 2008). The TSA’s shifting policies did not end harassment of nursing mothers, as evidenced by a controversy in November 2010. Roger Ebert, “Update on the TSA Breast Milk Incident,” Roger Ebert’s Journal (blog), Chicago Sun-Times, http://blogs.suntimes.com/ebert/politics/nbsp-nbsp.html.

  2. Jennifer Block, “Move Over, Milk Banks: Facebook and Milk Sharing,” Time, November 22, 2010.

  3. “Board Won’t Relent for Breast-feeding Mother,” Boston Globe, June 23, 2007.

  4. On milk banks, see Lois Arnold, “Donor Human Milk Banking: Creating Public Health Policy in the 21st Century,” PhD diss., Union Institute and University, 2005.

  5. Milkscreen, http://www.milkscreen-moms.com/.

  6. Useful histories include Rima D. Apple, Mothers and Medicine: A Social History of Infant Fee
ding, 1890–1950 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1987); Valerie Fildes, Breasts, Bottles, and Babies: A History of Infant Feeding (Edinburgh, UK: Edinburgh University Press, 1986); Bernice L. Hausman, Mother’s Milk: Breastfeeding Controversies in American Culture (New York: Routledge, 2003); Harvey Leverstein, “ ‘Best for Babies’ or ‘Preventable Infanticide’? The Controversy over Artificial Feeding of Infants in America, 1880–1920,” Journal of American History 70 (1983): 75–94. And, more broadly, Marilyn Yalom, A History of the Breast (New York: Knopf, 1997).

  7. A rare early scholarly study is Maia Boswell-Penc and Kate Boyer, “Expressing Anxiety? Breast Pump Usage in American Wage Workplaces,” Gender, Place, and Culture 14 (October 2007): 551–67.

  8. “John McCain & Sarah Palin on Shattering the Glass Ceiling: Interview with McCain and Palin,” by Sandra Sobieraj Westfall, People, August 29, 2008, http://www.people.com/people/article/0,,20222685,00.html.

  9. Julie Hirschfeld Davis, Associated Press, “Capital Culture: New Moms Love Capitol ‘Boob Cube,’ ” Boston Globe, December 16, 2010.

  10. Kate Zernike, “A Breast-Feeding Plan Mixes Partisan Reactions,” New York Times, February 18, 2011.

  11. On Avent’s iQ technology, see http://www.consumer.philips.com/consumer/en/gb/consumer

  /cc/_categoryid_ADVANTAGE_OF_IQ_AR_GB_CONSUMER/.

  12. Linnaeus’s work was brilliantly reconstructed and analyzed by Londa Schiebinger in “Why Mammals Are Called Mammals,” American Historical Review 98 (April 1993): 382–411. See also Gunnar Broberg, “Homo sapiens: Linnaeus’s Classification of Man,” Linnaeus: The Man and His Work, ed. Tore Frangsmyr (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983), especially 170–75. On the length of time Linnaeus’s wife nursed, note that one of his maxims was “The newborn should be nourished with mother’s milk for several years” (Heinz Goerke, Linnaeus, trans. Denver Lindley [New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1973], 119).

  13. Franklin quoted in Samuel X. Radbill, “Centuries of Child Welfare in Philadelphia: Part II, Benjamin Franklin and Pediatrics,” Philadelphia Medicine 71 (1975): 320. Benjamin Franklin, The Life of Dr. Benjamin Franklin. Written by Himself (Philadelphia, 1794), 19.

  14. William Gouge, Of Domesticall Duties (London, 1622), 507–13. Cotton Mather, The A, B, C of Religion (Boston, 1713). John Cotton’s Spiritual Milk for Boston Babes was printed in London in 1646, the same year as Robert Abbot’s Milk for Babes; Or, A Mother’s Catechism for Her Children.

  15. Ruth Perry, “Colonizing the Breast: Sexuality and Maternity in Eighteenth-Century England,” Journal of the History of Sexuality 2 (1991): 204–34. See also Paula A. Treckel, “Breastfeeding and Maternal Sexuality in Colonial America,” Journal of Interdisciplinary History 20 (1989): 25–51. Mary Wollestonecraft, A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (Boston, 1782), 256.

  16. Erasmus Darwin, Zoonomia; or, The Laws of Organic Life (London, 1794), 1:145. See also George D. Sussman, Selling Mother’s Milk: The Wet-Nursing Business in France, 1715–1915 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1982), especially chapter 2.

  17. Daguerreotypes of women breast-feeding are housed in the collections of, among other places, the Schlesinger Library at Radcliffe and the Nelson-Atkins Gallery in Kansas City. On antebellum breast-feeding, see also Sally McMillen, “Mothers’ Sacred Duty: Breast-feeding Patterns Among Middle- and Upper-Class Women in the Antebellum South,” Journal of Southern History 51 (1985): 333–56; and Sylvia D. Hoffert, Private Matters: American Attitudes Toward Childbearing and Infant Nurture in the Urban North, 1800–1860 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1989).

  18. Adrienne Berney, “Reforming the Maternal Breast: Infant Feeding and American Culture, 1870–1940,” PhD diss., University of Delaware, 1998, 42. See also Jacqueline H. Wolf, Don’t Kill Your Baby: Public Health and the Decline of Breastfeeding in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 2001), 31–33.

  19. Joe B. Frantz, “Gail Borden as a Businessman,” Bulletin of the Business Historical Society 22 (1948): 123–33.

  20. Charles Darwin, The Descent of Man (London, 1871), chapter 2.

  21. In Stephen Jay Gould, The Mismeasure of Man (New York: Norton, 1981), 35.

  22. Berney, “Reforming the Maternal Breast,” 55, 60–63, 262–72, 140–45.

  23. Janet Golden, “From Wet Nurse Directory to Milk Bank,” Bulletin of the History of Medicine 62 (1988): 589–605. See also Henry Dwight Chapin, “The Operation of a Breast Milk Dairy,” Transactions of the American Pediatric Society 25 (1923): 150–55.

  24. Fritz B. Talbot, “An Organization for Supplying Human Milk,” New England Journal of Medicine (1928): 610–11; “Directory for Wetnurses,” New England Journal of Medicine (1927): 653–54; “The Wetnurse Problem,” Boston Medical and Surgical Journal (1913): 760–62; “Two Methods of Obtaining Human Milk for Hospital Use,” Boston Medical and Surgical Journal (1911): 304–6. James A. Tobey, “A New Foster-Mother,” Hygeia 7 (1929): 1110–12. Carrie Hunt McCann, “Manual Breast Expression: The Importance of Teaching It to the Mother,” American Journal of Nursing 28 (1928): 31–32. More on Talbot can be found in the Fritz B. Talbot Papers, Countway Library, Harvard Medical School.

  25. For an early pump model, see Calvina MacDonald, “Abt’s Electric Breast Pump,” American Journal of Nursing 25 (1925): 277–80. Storage depended on the rise of freezers, which is discussed in chapter 10, but see also Paul W. Emerson, “The Preservation of Human Milk: Preliminary Notes on the Freezing Process,” Journal of Pediatrics 2 (1933): 472–77.

  26. Judy Torgus and Gwen Gotsh, ed., The Womanly Art of Breastfeeding, 7th ed. (Schaumburg, IL: La Leche League International, 2004), 6.

  27. On the Healthy People 2000 objectives, and falling short: “The proportion of all mothers who breastfeed their infants in the early postpartum period increased from 52 percent in 1990 to 62 percent in 1997. For select populations, the rate of early breastfeeding increased over the same period as follows—for Black mothers, from 23 to 41 percent; for Hispanic mothers, from 48 to 64 percent; for American Indian/Alaska Native mothers, from 47 to 56 percent. The early breastfeeding rate for low-income mothers increased from 35 percent in 1990 to 42 percent in 1996. The year 2000 target is 75 percent.” Department of Health and Human Services, “Progress Review: Maternal and Infant Health,” May 5, 1999, http://odphp.osophs.dhhs.gov/pubs/hp2000/PROGRVW/

  materinfant/maternalprog.htm. The 2010 report card is available at http://www.cdc.gov/breastfeeding/data/reportcard.htm. See also American Academy of Pediatrics, “Breastfeeding and the Use of Human Milk,” Pediatrics 115 (2005): 496–506; and Karen A. Bonuck, “Paucity of Evidence-Based Research on How to Achieve the Healthy People 2010 Goal of Exclusive Breastfeeding,” Pediatrics 120 (2007): 248–49.

  28. Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act of 2010, Pub. L. No. 111–48, §4207 (2010). But see also “Breastfeeding Laws,” National Conference of State Legislatures, http://www.ncsl.org/default.aspx?tabid=14389, and U.S. Department of Labor Wage and Hour Division, “Fact Sheet #73: Break Time for Nursing Mothers Under the FLSA,” http://www.dol.gov/whd/regs/compliance/whdfs73.pdf.

  29. “Legislative History of Breastfeeding Promotion Requirements in WIC,” USDA Food & Nutrition Service, http://www.fns.usda.gov/wic/Breastfeeding/bflegishistory.htm.

  30. On Medela’s website in 2008.

  31. Jodi Kantor, “On the Job, Working Mothers Are Finding a 2-Class System,” New York Times, September 1, 2006. Rebecca Adams, “A Place to Pump,” Washington Post, May 13, 2008.

  32. Dave Hogan and Michelle Cole, “Political Notebook: Governor Signs Bill for Breast Pump Breaks,” Oregonian, May 18, 2007.

  33. Adams, “A Place to Pump.”

  34. Pregnancy Discrimination Act of 2005, H.R. 2122, 109th Cong. (2005).

  35. See, e.g., Lois Arnold, “Global Health Policies That Support the Use of Banked Donor Human Milk: A Human Rights Issue,” International Breastfeeding Journal 1, no. 26 (2006): 1–8.

  36. David Koc
ieniewski, “Acne Cream? Tax-Sheltered. Breast Pump? No,” New York Times, October 26, 2010.

  37. Zernike, “A Breast-Feeding Plan.”

  38. For more on this question, see Joan B. Wolf, “Is Breast Really Best? Risk and Total Motherhood in the National Breastfeeding Awareness Campaign,” Journal of Health Politics, Policy and Law 32 (2007): 595–636.

  39. “Open Letter to the Department of Health and Human Services Secretary Mike Leavitt,” National Organization for Women http://www.now.org/issues/mothers/060718breastfeeding.html.

  40. Medela’s website in 2008 and “2-Phase Expression,” Medela, http://www.medela.com/IW/en/breastfeeding/research-at-medela/2-phase-expression.html.

  Chapter 3. THE CHILDREN’s ROOM

  1. Anne Carroll Moore (hereafter ACM), My Roads to Childhood: Views and Reviews of Children’s Books (Boston: Horn Book, 1961). Frances Clarke Sayers, Anne Carroll Moore: A Biography (New York: Atheneum, 1972).

  2. Sayers, Moore, ix, 105–6, 136. Miriam Braverman, Youth, Society, and the Public Library (Chicago: American Library Association, 1979), 14.

  3. ACM, My Roads to Childhood, 65. Braverman, Youth, 15.

  4. “History of the New York Public Library,” New York Public Library, http://www.nypl.org/help/about-nypl/history. On the number of pre-Carnegie and Carnegie branches, see Amy Spaulding, “Moore, Anne Carroll,” in American National Biography Online (2000). Sayers, Moore, 140. See also Helen Adams Masten, “The Central Children’s Room,” Bulletin of the New York Public Library 60 (1956): 554.

  5. John Locke, Some Thoughts Concerning Education (London, 1693), 63, 178. On the “discovery of childhood” (which is much debated), see Philippe Ariès, Centuries of Childhood: A Social History of Family Life (New York: Vintage, 1962). For an excellent American exploration of this theme, see Karen Calvert, Children in the House: The Material Culture of Early Childhood, 1600–1900 (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1992). On Newbery, see Brian Alderson and Felix de Marez Oyens, Be Merry and Wise: Origins of Children’s Book Publishing in England, 1650–1850 (New York: Pierpont Morgan Library, Bibliographical Society of America, 2006), chapter 5. On American imports of English children’s titles, see E. Jennifer Monaghan, Learning to Read and Write in Colonial America (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2005), chapter 11. On Newbery’s career, see John Rowe Townsend, ed., Trade & Plumb-cake for Ever, Huzza! The Life and Work of John Newbery, 1713–1767 (Cambridge: Colt Books, 1994).