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Also by Peter McAllister
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Endnotes
Brawn
1. Leit, 2001.
2. Kouri, 1995.
3. Olivardia, 2004.
4. Willoughby, 1970.
5. Huenemann, 1966.
6. Ogawa, 1997.
7. Scholz, 2006.
8. Bauman, 1926.
9. Some commentators have questioned Bauman’s findings citing a 1943 paper that found a much lower margin of chimp superiority [Finch, G. (1943). “The Bodily Strength of Chimpanzees.” Journal of Mammalogy 24(2): 224–28]. Finch’s study, however, is anomalous; every later study has confirmed Bauman’s findings.
10. Wrangham, 1996.
11. Walker, 2009.
12. Pain, 2007.
13. Haapasalo, 1995.
14. Hawks, 2007.
15. Ricciardellia, 2007.
16. Campbell, 2005.
17. Frederick, 2007.
18. Parkin, 2007.
Bravado
1. Strauch, 1998.
2. Sutton-Smith, 1995.
3. Farthing, 2005.
4. Kruger, 2006.
5. Ember, 1971.
6. Furuichi, 1994.
7. de Waal, 1982.
8. Cambria, 2004.
9. Briggs, 2007.
10. Hurley, 2006.
11. Ellsworth, 2004.
12. Finkel MD, 2002.
13. Motte-Florac, 2004.
14. Takahashi, 1998.
15. Welbourn, 1968.
16. Newman, 1982.
17. Posey, 2004.
18. Welbourn, 1968.
19. Pounder, 1981.
20. Cowen, 2000.
21. Blomberg, 2008.
22. Coe, 1993.
23. Chinnery, 1919.
24. Guilaine, 2005.
25. Sturtevant, 1980.
26. Knowles, 1940.
27. Knowles, 1940.
28. Barnes, 1983.
29. Coleman, 1990.
30. Oliver, 2002.
31. Taylor, 2007.
32. Oliffe, 2004.
33. Ball, 2003.
34. Leake, 1925.
35. Prioreschi, 1996.
36. Arnott, 2002.
37. Webb, 1995.
38. O’Connor, 1997.
39. Guilaine, 2005.
40. Churchill, 2005.
41. Churchill, 1990.
42. Glazier, 2000.
43. Putnam, 1948.
Battle
1. Dunning, 2000.
2. Pappas, 2007.
3. Ngai, 2008.
4. Downey, 2007.
5. Svinth, 2007.
6. Hall, 2003.
7. Rodriguez, 1998.
8. Brophy, 1985.
9. Poliakoff, 1987.
10. Brophy, 1985.
11. Poliakoff, 1987.
12. Brophy, 1985.
13. Brophy III, 1978.
14. Brophy III, 1978.
15. Brophy, 1985.
16. Shadrake, 2005.
17. Kanz, 2006.
18. Knuckey, 1992.
19. Ford, 2005.
20. MacRae, 2006; Sivarajasingam, 2002.
21. Marshall, 1979.
22. Conley, 1999.
23. Hurley, 2007.
24. Burnham, 2006.
25. Murphy, 2006.
26. My personal feeling is that it is far too high, based simply on the evidence of the death certificates: the authors’ claim that 92 percent of the deaths they report are confirmed by official death certificates seems impossible to square with Iraqi Ministry of Health records of approximately 50,000 issued certificates. On the other hand, at least one other reputable estimate of Iraqi casualties is even higher.
27. Keeley, 1996.
28. Two, indeed, are almost double. The indigenous Kato people of northwestern California, for example, suffered a death rate from war of 1.45 percent during the 1840s. Fiji in the 1860s, similarly, lost almost 1.25 percent of its population per year through vicious and incessant fighting (the death rate in the past had probably been even higher, since by 1860 Christianity was already reducing violence on the Fijian islands). Incidentally, my calculation of annual Fijian warfare casualty rates (1.25 percent) exceeds Keeley’s (0.87 percent) due to our apparently different data on Fiji’s total population in 1860. My data shows 160,000, Keeley’s 200,000.
29. Haas, 1990.
30. Haas, 1990.
31. Vayda, 1960.
32. Man, 2007.
33. Oliver, 1974.
34. Gabriel, 1991.
35. Oliver, 1974.
36. Kilner, 2000.
37. Polo, 1993.
38. Weber, 2006.
39. Godelier, 1986.
40. Crowther, 2007.
41. Benario, 1986.
42. Warry, 1980.
43. Peers, 2005.
44. Lewis, 1967.
45. Turnbull, 2007.
46. Martin, 2004.
47. Saunders, 1971.
48. Anon, 2006.
49. Lane, 2006.
50. Large male-size among primate species, for instance, is closely (though not perfectly) correlated with polygyny, or the pursuit of multiple sexual partners by males. This is because of the simple logic of natural selection: since mating opportunities with females are a scarce resource that the biggest, strongest males monopolize, their male descendants tend to grow ever larger and meaner. (In extreme cases, like that of elephant seals, among whom males weigh four times as much as females, the largest 5 percent of males produce 85 percent of the offspring each season.) Le Boeuf, 1988.
51. Newburn, 1995.
52. Brunner HG, 1993.
53. Caspi, 2002.
54. Wendland, 2006.
55. Price, 1999.
56. Sadalla, 1987.
57. Van Patten, 2007.
58. As measured by their number of decorations. McEllistrem, 2003.
Balls
1. Paul, 2003.
2. Atyeo, 1979.
3. Yiannakis, 2001.
4. Cantu, 2000.
5. King, 1996.
6. King, 1996.
7. Martin, 2003.
8. Vennum, 1994.
9. Vennum, 1994.
10. Elyot, 1544.
11. Magoun Jr., 1931.
12. Elias, 1986.
13. Atyeo, 1979.
14. Barker, 2003.
15. Guttmann, 1981.
16. Miller, 2006.
17. Mangan, 1997.
18. Kautz, 2000.
19. Blanchard, 1995.
20. Elias, 1986.
21. Carlson, 2004.
22. Carlson, 2004.
23. Nabokov, 1981.
24. Balke, 2003.
25. Nabokov, 1981.
26. Sears, 2001.
27. Critics sometimes claim these results are obviated by the Rwandan jumpers’ use of “jumping-off” mounds. The sources show, however, that these were not so much mounds as marks—usually less than two inches in height [see Bale, 1996].
28. Cameron Hurst III, 1998.
29. Guttmann, 2001.
30. Butterwick, 2002.
31. Guttmann, 1996.
32. Freedman, 2008.
33. Anon, 2008.
34. Gregor, 1987.
35. Shadrake, 2005.
36. Crowther, 2007.
37. Shadrake, 2005.
38. Crowther, 2007.
39. Boxill, 2003.
40. Barker, 2003.
41. Nabokov, 1981.
42. Segal, 1984.
43. Rees, 1984.
44. Boxill, 2003.
45. Segal, 1984.
46. Sweet, 1987.
47. Blanchard, 1995.
48. Luschen, 1970.
49. Golden, 2004.
50. Vennum, 1994.
51. Sweet, 1987.
52. Treimel, 2001.
53. Bogin, 1998.
54. McDonald, 2008.
55. May, 2006.
56. Karpowicz, 2007.
Bards
1. There are, of course, many talented and successful female rappers, but I’m not talking about them for two reasons: first, even they will readily admit rap is a heavily masculinized art form (that’s one of the major challenges they face), and second, women in general are simply not the focus of this book.
2. Lord, 1991.
3. Lord, 1991.
4. Pihel, 1996.
5. Such improvisation does, of course, lighten the burden of what the poet must memorize. But Homer still had to remember everything in the poems, including every narrative element, and the descriptions and actions of twenty-four major characters and almost one hundred minor ones. Reciting the two poems probably became even more demanding for those bards who lived after Homer, since written copies would then have existed for audiences to compare.
6. Herndon, 1971.
7. Foley, 2007.
8. Garzia, 2007.
9. Armstrong, 2001.
10. Sahlas, 2001.
11. Armstrong, 2001.
12. Rosen, 1999.
13. Parker, 1988.
14. Henderson, 1991.
15. Lucile Hoerr, 1945.
16. Levy, 1975.
17. Adamson Hoebel, 1941.
18. Avorgbedor, 1994.
19. Johnson, 2008.
20. Avorgbedor, 1994.
21. Hunt, 2001.
22. Haselton, 2006.
23. Morgan, 1999.
24. Locke, 2007.
25. Oliver, 1974.
26. Locke, 2007.
27. Marshall, 1961.
28. Lord, 1991.
Beauty
1. Simpson, 1994.
2. Coad, 2008.
3. Simpson, 2003.
4. Bovin, 2001.
5. Rasmussen, 1991.
6. Oliver, 1974.
7. Carlyle, 1997.
8. Bovin, 2001.
9. Brain, 1979.
10. Jaoyti, 2008.
11. Brain, 1979.
12. Rey, 1924.
13. Mageo, 1996.
14. Oliver, 2002.
15. Kardiner, 1974.
16. Mathews, 1900.
17. Gusinde, 1961.
18. Kilmer, 1982.
19. Athenburg, 2007.
20. Hodges, 2001.
21. Oliver, 1974.
22. Guttmann, 1996.
23. Guttmann, 1996.
24. Dyall-Smith, 1999.
25. Trinkaus, 1982.
26. Fan, 2005.
27. Ogden, 2007.
28. Grammer, 1994.
29. Travison, 2007.
Babies
1. Hansen, 1998.
2. Hewlett, 1992a.
3. Anon, 2008.
4. Hewlett, 1992a.
5. Hewlett, 1992b.
6. Lamb, 1976.
7. Hewlett, 1992a.
8. Anon, 2005.
9. I feel duty-bound to point out, however, that the situation may not be as simple as that. According to the medical literature, gynecomastia occurs in 50 to 70 percent of Western adolescent males, too, Singh Narula, 2007. I find it difficult to believe this is the same level of breast growth (three in four Western boys have breasts?), but I suppose it is possible that the reports of Aka and Mbuti gynecomastia simply stem from the fact that Pygmy boys and men walk around without shirts more often than Western men
.
10. Hewlett, 1992b.
11. Lamb, 1976.
12. Sayer, 2004.
13. Sayer, 2004.
14. Hewlett, 1992a.
15. www.pageantcenter.com.
16. Wonderlich, 2005.
17. The astute reader will no doubt notice these figures differ from those in the section on time spent with children (see page 226). That’s because they come from different studies, both of which use slightly different parameters.
18. There is, though, related data showing that the nutrition of Aka daughters under the age of five is marginally better than that of Aka sons. While this doesn’t directly bear on fathers’ treatment of daughters, it obviously tends to indicate their treatment is at least equal, and possibly better.
19. Kreider, 2008.
20. Parmigiani, 1994.
21. Anderson, 1999.
22. Marlowe, 2000.
23. Irons, 2000.
24. Apicella, 2004.
25. Kiernan, 2003.
26. Valsiner, 2000.
27. Valsiner, 2000.
28. Tabori, 1961.
29. For skeptics who doubt references like these, see the Huichol yarn tapestry held by the Fine Arts Museum of San Francisco, which clearly shows a Huichol dad being encouraged to express his support for his wife by the application of a cord around his genitals.
30. Illingworth, 1968.
31. Hewlett, 1992a.
32. Oliver, 2002.
33. Winters, 2001.
34. In this case, however, Hewlett doesn’t record whether they were more promiscuous than lower-status males, making it unclear whether they also diverted effort from fathering to pursuit of multiple sexual partners. Given the high mortality of Aka children without a strong connection to a father, though, it seems doubtful that neglectful promiscuity could be a particularly successful mating strategy in the dangerous conditions of the Aka habitat.
Babes
1. Cherry, 2006.
2. A quick mental exercise shows why this must be the case, even though individual men may have had many more lovers than individual women, and vice-versa. Imagine a sample population of ten men and ten women. Even if just one man has sex with each of the women while the others have none, the average number of lovers for each group will be identical—one man has had ten lovers, nine have had none, and ten women have had one. The average is still one lover per man, and one per woman.
3. Kolata, 2007.
4. Weber, E., 2000.
5. Mystery, 2007.
6. Gregor, 1987.
7. Brannigan, 1987.
8. Malinowski, 1932.
9. Mystery, 2007.
10. Anon, 2008b.
11. Apparently it is—Jeffries, for example, offers his buyers an “If you don’t get laid…with at least three hot women within ninety days…I’ll refund every penny” guarantee.
Manthropology Page 29