The Mabinogion (Oxford World's Classics)

by Sioned Davies

  through the power of the wine the demon was driven out: exorcizing fairies and demons by sprinkling water (not wine) is a common motif. A well-known Welsh example is found in the sixteenth-century story of St Collen, who uses holy water to defeat Gwyn ap Nudd in his palace in Annwfn (the Otherworld).

  dragons fighting: this episode is related to the account in the ninthcentury History of the Britons, where the fatherless boy Ambrosius (Emrys in Welsh) explains the mystery of Vortigern’s collapsing stronghold in Snowdonia: under the foundations is a pool in which there are two dragons, one red and the other white, symbolizing the native Welsh and the Saxon nations respectively. After fierce fighting the red dragon is victorious, leading to the prophecy that the Saxons will eventually be overcome and thrown out of Britain. Geoffrey of Monmouth’s reworking of this account identifies the wonder-child Ambrosius with Merlin, who becomes an integral part of the Arthurian legend. The red dragon is today a symbol of Wales, and incorporated in the national flag. See note on Caerfyrddin (p. 108).

  no plague shall come to the Island of Britain: in the triads, the burying of the dragons is linked to the talismanic burial of the bones of Gwrthefyr the Blessed and the Head of Bendigeidfran son of Llŷr, also commemorated at the end of the Second Branch (p. 34)—together they are ‘the Three Fortunate Concealments of the Island of Britain’, keeping the land safe from (Saxon) oppression (TYP 37). However, the burying of the dragons does not constitute protection as such, but rather is itself the defeating of an oppression or plague. The second part of the triad—‘the Three Unfortunate Disclosures’—notes that Gwrtheyrn (Vortigern) disclosed the whereabouts of the dragons.

  Oxford: it is not clear why the author should name Oxford as the central point of Britain; however, it was an important political and administrative centre in the eleventh century, which may well explain why Pryderi travels there to pay homage to Caswallon in the Third Branch (p. 36).

  Dinas Emrys: dinas is Welsh for ‘fort’; this place-name is obviously connected to the story in the History of the Britons. However, the naming here is anachronistic, for Emrys (Lat. Ambrosius) was only linked with the place later, after he had disclosed the whereabouts of the dragons.

  Ffaraon Dandde was one of the Three Chief Officers who Broke his Heart from Sorrow: Ffaraon is the Welsh form of Pharaoh; tandde means ‘fiery’. The character appears in later genealogies of Arthur as the father of Llŷr Llediaith. According to a later triad, there were Three People who Broke their Hearts from Sorrow: Ffaraon Dandde, together with Branwen daughter of Llŷr and Caradog son of Brân, both characters in the Second Branch (see p. 33).

  drowsiness forcing him to sleep: sleep-inducing music is a theme in both Irish and Welsh; compare, for example, the birds of Rhiannon who, according to the giant Ysbaddaden, ‘wake the dead and lull the living to sleep’ (p. 196).

  hamper: a hamper or vessel of plenty is a common international folk-tale motif; compare the hamper of Gwyddnau Garan Hir in ‘How Culhwch Won Olwen’ (p. 196). This magical object is also paralleled in the bag which Rhiannon gives to Pwyll so that he can trick Gwawl in the First Branch (pp. 12–13).

  THE LADY OF THE WELL

  The emperor Arthur was at Caerllion ar Wysg: see note on Arthur’s court, p. 82.

  Owain son of Urien … Cai son of Cynyr: see notes on pp. 66 and 68 for Owain and Cai. There are several references to Cynon son of Clydno in the Gododdin, a poem attributed to Aneirin, commemorating the heroic deeds of a war-band from the Gododdin tribe that was defeated in a battle at Catraeth (Catterick) in the North of England, about AD 600. The land of the Gododdin extended along the shores of the Firth of Forth, with its capital at Din Eidyn (perhaps Edinburgh), the epithet that appears in the name of Cynan’s father, Clydno Eidyn.

  Glewlwyd Gafaelfawr: means ‘Brave Grey Mighty Grasp’. He appears as Arthur’s gatekeeper on special occasions in ‘Geraint son of Erbin’ and ‘How Culhwch Won Olwen’ too. In the former he fills the office only at one of the three chief festivals, while in the latter he is only there on the first of January. In the poem ‘What Man is the Gatekeeper?’ in the Black Book of Carmarthen, Glewlwyd is the gatekeeper of a fortress to which Arthur himself and his men are attempting to gain admittance (see Patrick Sims-Williams, ‘The Early Welsh Arthurian Poems’, in AOW 33–71). A brief reference in the triads (TYP 88) notes that he is the lover of Dyfyr Golden-Hair, one of the Three Famous Maidens of Arthur’s Court.

  the good story: the term here is ymddiddan, ‘conversation’ in Modern Welsh. The term occurs in the title of a number of dialogue poems, implying perhaps a dramatic performance between two speakers. In this context, however, ymddiddan is a prose monologue of some length, where Cynon narrates a personal experience to Arthur’s knights but directs his comments at Cai; hence it is a dialogue of sorts, although it elicits no response from the listener.

  Cai went to the kitchen and the mead cellar: this implies that Cai holds the high-ranking office of steward, one of the twenty-four officers of the king’s court whose function, among other things, is ‘to control the food in the kitchen and the drink in the mead-store’ (LHDd 13).

  an enormous black-haired man … keeper of that forest: some translators have taken this to be a dark-skinned man. However, an adjective denoting colour, when employed to describe a human, usually denotes hair colour or colour of clothing (see note to p. 86). Parallels have been drawn between this forester and the Irish Fer Caille in the tale The Destruction of Da Derga’s Hostel. Both men are giants, and have one foot, one eye, and carry a club. Both have also been associated with the Celtic horned god Cernunnos, often portrayed as an antlered god seated cross-legged, wearing a torque and accompanied by a ram-horned snake, and sometimes a bull and a stag. See Miranda Green, The Gods of the Celts (Gloucester, 1986).

  And under that tree there’s a well … such singing as theirs: compare the Third Branch of the Mabinogi, where Pryderi comes across a well with marble-work around it, and a golden bowl fastened to four chains (p. 40). Indeed, many medieval poets refer to Owain as Iarll y Cawg, ‘the Earl of the Bowl/Basin’. As in the Third Branch, too, a huge noise or an uproar precedes the supernatural incident. Birdsong is often associated with the Otherworld; compare the birds of Rhiannon who wake the dead and send the living to sleep (see pp. 33 and 196).

  The black man: in this case, ‘black’ refers to the colour of his garments (see above).

  anointing the nobleman who owns the castle: that is, administering the last rites. The death of the Black Knight is skilfully interwoven with the traditional technique of tripartite repetition.

  sendal: a thin, light silk used for fine garments.

  the Lady of the Well: Iarlles y Ffynnon in Welsh. Ffynnon is the common Welsh word for ‘well’. However, in this particular context, most translators have chosen the archaic or poetic ‘fountain’. ‘Well’, however, is a better reflection of modern usage, ‘fountain’ carrying with it Victorian connotations of artificial structures erected in public places. Wells, on the other hand, were associated with Celtic ritual, and many have a religious significance to this day. See Francis Jones, The Holy Wells of Wales (Cardiff, 1992; first published Aberystwyth, 1954).

  with an image of a golden lion fastening them: this may well be in anticipation of Owain’s relationship with the lion. In Chrétien’s work he is known as the Knight with the Lion. See D. D. R. Owen (trans.), Chrétien de Troyes: Arthurian Romances (London, 1987).

  a maiden approaching: there is no reason to suppose that this maiden should be identified with Luned.

  the Black Oppressor: this episode seems to be an addition to the main tale. ‘Black’ in this context is ambiguous, but could be taken in the sense of ‘wicked’; compare the ‘Black Oppressor’ in ‘Peredur’ (p. 87). They are not to be identified with each other, although the nouns in both cases mean ‘Oppressor’: in ‘Peredur son of Efrog’, the character is called the Du Trahawg, while here he is the Du Traws.

  I will become a hospitaller: yspytty (hostel) occurs
in ‘How Culhwch Won Olwen’ (p. 181), and refers to a place where guests would stay before gaining entrance to Arthur’s hall. Here, however, it may well have more precise associations and refer to the Hospitallers of the Order of St John of Jerusalem (later known as the Knights of Malta), an important military order that placed great weight on hospitality and caring for the sick. However, records suggest that their hostels in Wales were centres for thieving and ill-doing, the point made here by the author of the tale. See William Rees, A History of the Order of St. John of Jerusalem in Wales and on the Welsh Border (Cardiff, 1947).

  Three Hundred Swords of Cenferchyn and the Flight of Ravens: a reference to Owain’s troops. Cenferchyn means ‘the descendants of Cynfarch’, who was Owain’s grandfather. ‘Raven’, on the other hand, is a common metaphor for warrior in Welsh poetry, so the ‘Flight of Ravens’ may well refer again to his retinue. In ‘Rhonabwy’s Dream’, however, Owain’s troops are literally ravens—they swoop down and attack Arthur’s men (p. 223). Owain’s ravens are commemorated in the coat of arms of the family of Sir Rhys ap Thomas of Abermarlais, which claimed descent from Owain and his father Urien.

  GERAINT SON OF ERBIN

  It was Arthur’s custom to hold court at Caerllion ar Wysg: a formula that is employed to open several episodes in the three ‘romances’ (see pp. 86 and 116).

  for seven Easters and five Christmasses … Whitsuntide: these were the three major feasts of the Christian calendar, and those at which the Anglo-Norman kings held court. They are also described in the Welsh laws as ‘the three special feasts’ (LHDd 5).

  the steward: one of the twenty-four officers of the king’s court according to Welsh law. Cai is associated with this office in ‘The Lady of the Well’, see note to p. 68.

  Odiar the Frank: as a common noun, frank means ‘foreign mercenary’; here, however, it may refer mean ‘Frenchman’ or ‘Norman’.

  nine captains of the bodyguard: the captain of the household or bodyguard was a high-ranking court officer, whose duties included putting the harp ‘into the hand of the bard of the household at the three special feasts’. For the full range of his duties and privileges, see LHDd 8–11.

  Glewlwyd Gafaelfawr … Clust son of Clustfeinydd: ‘Glewlwyd Mighty Grasp’, see note to p. 116. Gryn does not occur elsewhere and may well be a scribal error. Penpingion and Llaesgymyn are Glewlwyd’s assistants in ‘How Culhwch Won Olwen’ too (p. 181), while both Drem son of Dremidydd (‘Sight son of Seer’) and Clust son of Clustfeinydd (‘Ear son of Hearer’) appear in the Court List (pp. 186 and 188).

  go and hunt … and everyone else: according to the laws, each officer was designated particular lodgings at court; for example, the chief huntsman and chief squire (or groom) were to be lodged in the kiln and the house nearest the barn respectively (see LHDd 21 and 29). The hunting seasons are also noted, together with the animals to be hunted in each of those seasons (ibid. 22.

  would it not be appropriate … on foot: the laws describe how the carcass was divided into ‘joints’, including its loins, haunches, heart, liver, and tongue, and specify that it was an offence to carry off certain joints without the huntsmen’s permission. The head itself is not mentioned (LHDd 184–5).

  the servants who were in charge of his bed … Gorau son of Custennin: these seem to fulfil the role of the ‘chamberlain’ see note to p. 68. Cadyriaith, meaning ‘Fine Speech’, is presented in ‘Rhonabwy’s Dream’ as someone who can understand complex praise poetry (p. 225). Amhren and Gorau appear in ‘How Culhwch Won Olwen’ (see note on Gorau, p. 202), while the latter appears in ‘Rhonabwy’s Dream’ also (p. 225); Amhar is mentioned in the History of the Britons in the context of an onomastic tale, located in the Archenfield district of Herefordshire, where we are told that he was killed by his own father, Arthur.

  Geraint: the many references to Geraint son of Erbin in early sources suggest that he may be a combination of several persons of the same name: the early fifth-century British general Gerontius; a sixth-century Geraint, named in the Gododdin poem; the eighth-century Geruntius, king of Domnonia (Devon); the Cornish saint Gerent; and a Gerennius,king of Cornwall (see AOW 46–7). In the triads (TYP 14), he is one of the Three Seafarers/Fleet Owners of the Island of Britain. Traditions about him were also known in Brittany; indeed, it would seem that the cognate hero of the French romance Erec takes his name from the Breton Guerec, the ruler who gave his name to Bro Weroc, the territory around Vannes. In the Mabinogion Arthur and Geraint are cousins—Erbin is Arthur’s uncle—probably due to the influence of Geoffrey of Monmouth. For further details, see TYP, pp. 356–60.

  charger: there were many terms for ‘horse’ in Medieval Welsh, including cadfarch, ‘charger, warhorse’. For descriptions of horses in the Mabinogion, see note to p. 95. This tale is particularly rich in its elaborate descriptions, the attributes conforming to the virtues of a good horse.

  sparrowhawk: hunting-birds were very important in medieval Welsh society, as attested by the laws. The hawk was worth a pound, while the sparrowhawk was worth 12 pence when young, and 24 pence with its adult plumage (LHDd 182–3).

  Edern son of Nudd: brother to the legendary Gwyn son of Nudd, cognate with the Irish deity Nuadu. Both characters appear in ‘How Culhwch Won Olwen’ (pp. 184 and 207); Edern also appears in ‘Rhonabwy’s, Dream’ (p. 225).

  His story so far: the author makes a deliberate attempt to show that one strand of the narrative has come to an end, and that the focus of the next section will be on a new protagonist. Cf. p. 149, ‘Geraint’s adventure so far’, and again p. 152, ‘Their story so far’.

  Earl Ynywl: the name is unknown outside this tale. It may be linked to the common noun niwl, meaning ‘mist’, and the character may once have been associated with the ‘hedge of mist’ episode at the end of the tale (pp. 176–8).

  And I want Arthur … give the maiden away: if a girl was given in marriage to a man by her kin, then she would be ‘bestowed’ by them—this was a legal agreement, associated with payments such as amobr (the fee payable to the woman’s lord) and cowyll (virginity payment made to her by the husband). Here, although Ynywl the father has consented to give his daughter, Geraint wishes to postpone the marriage until he returns to Arthur’s court, where Arthur and Gwenhwyfar can be the official rhoddiaid (‘bestowers’).

  Cafall: he is first mentioned in the ninth-century History of the Britons, in the context of an onomastic tale. When hunting Twrch Trwyth (see p. 198), Arthur’s dog Cabal impressed his footprint on a stone which Arthur then placed on top of a pile of stones. We are told that if the stone is taken away it mysteriously finds its way back to the place that has been called Carn Cabal (Cabal’s Cairn) ever since. Cafall is derived from Latin caballus, meaning ‘horse’, and may well have originally been the name of Arthur’s horse rather than his dog. He also plays a role in the hunt of the wild boar in ‘How Culhwch Won Olwen’ (see p. 210).

  insult-price: see note to p. 27.

  Caradog son of Llŷr … Gwalchmai: in ‘Rhonabwy’s Dream’, Caradog is presented as Arthur’s nephew (p. 218). In the triad of the Three Tribal Thrones of the Island of Britain (TYP 1), he is linked with Arthur and his court in Celli Wig in Cornwall, and described as ‘Chief of Elders’, and is given the epithet Freichfras (‘Strong-arm’), misinterpreted in the French romance as briefbras (‘short-arm’). Gwallog son of Llennog, according to the triads, is one of the Three Pillars of Battle (TYP 5) and one of the Three Armed Warriors (TYP 6) of the Island of Britain. In the History of the Britons he is one of the four kings who fought, alongside Urien, against the Angles of Northumbria at the end of the sixth century. Surviving evidence, including early poetry, suggest he was a historical figure associated with the North of Britain. Owain son of Nudd seems to be a brother to Edern, Geraint’s adversary, although nothing else is known of him; Gwalchmai is discussed in the note to p. 66.

  Morgan Tud … chief of physicians: according to the laws, the physician was one of the king’s twenty-four officers at cour
t (see LHDd 24–5). His role was to give medical attention free of charge, except for the three dangerous wounds for which he was paid: these were a blow to the head reaching the brain, a blow to the body reaching the bowels, and breaking one of the ‘four posts’ (i.e. thighs and arms). Here, Morgan Tud is a male character; however, in Chrétien’s romance the name is given to Arthur’s enchantress sister, Morgan le Fay, daughter of Arthur’s mother by her first husband, Gorlois, duke of Cornwall. In later tradition Morgan is portrayed as Arthur’s enemy, although the links with healing remain as she takes Arthur to the Isle of Avalon to be healed of his wounds.