Becoming a Tiger: The Education of an Animal Child

by Susan McCarthy

  try to fish for termites. Beck 1980.

  for nothing at all. Jane Goodall, panel discussion, Chimpanzoo 2002 conference.

  wield them ineptly. Beck 1980.

  the ant hole, and stir. Cited in Michael Tomasello, “Cultural Transmission in the Tool Use and Communicatory Signaling of Chimpanzees?” pp. 274–311 in Parker & Gibson 1990.

  preserve in the Ivory Coast. Andrew Whiten, “From the Field to the Laboratory and Back Again: Culture and ‘Social Mind’ in Primates,” pp. 385–392 in Bekoff et al. 2002.

  found that both work. Christophe Boesch, “Three Approaches for Assessing Chimpanzee Culture,” pp. 404–429 in Russon et al. 1996.

  ants, usually in trees. Nishida & Hiraiwa 1982.

  fruit of the umbrella tree. Yamakoshi 1998. The umbrella tree is Musanga cecropoides.

  attracted chimpanzees. Tetsuro Matsuzawa, “Field Experiments on Use of Stone Tools by Chimpanzees in the Wild,” pp. 351–370 in Wrangham et al. 1994.

  to level his anvil stone. Tetsuro Matsuzawa, “Chimpanzee Intelligence in Nature and Captivity: Isomorphism of Symbol Use and Tool Use,” pp. 196–209 in McGrew et al. 1996.

  pestle pounding. Tetsuro Matsuzawa and Gen Yamakoshi, “Comparison of Chimpanzee Material Culture between Bossou and Nimba, West Africa,” pp. 211–232 in Russon et al. 1996.

  algae from ponds. Tetsuro Matsuzawa, “Chimpanzee Ai and Her Son Ayumu: An Episode of Education by Master-Apprenticeship,” pp. 189–195 in Bekoff et al. 2002.

  sticks to get honey. Bermejo & Illera 1999.

  flowers of kapok trees. Alp 1997.

  captive chimpanzees. Beck 1980; McGrew et al. 1975.

  in unexpected ways. Savage-Rumbaugh & Lewin 1994.

  Tietê River in Brazil. Ottoni & Mannu 2001.

  with a boiled potato. Elisabetta Visalberghi, “Insight from Capuchin Monkey Studies: Ingredients of, Recipes for, and Flaws in Capuchins’ Success,” pp. 405–411 in Bekoff et al. 2002.

  unfastening his leash.” Kathleen Rita Gibson, “Tool Use, Imitation, and Deception in a Captive Cebus Monkey,” pp. 205–218 in Bekoff et al. 2002.

  apparently simple tasks.” Elisabetta Visalberghi and Luca Limongelli, “Acting and Understanding: Tool Use Revisited through the Minds of Capuchin Monkeys,” pp. 57–79 in Russon et al. 1996.

  maple-flavored syrup. Westergaard & Fragaszy 1987.

  to death with a branch. Boinski 1988.

  understand about tool use. Visalberghi & Limongelli 1994.

  a different response. Tokida et al. 1994.

  trunks with their feet. Wood 1988; Baptista 1994. Note that the species is Probosciger aterrimus.

  to crack open clams. Hancock 1977.

  no one knows how. Smolker 2001.

  out of a crevice. Brown & Norris 1956.

  babies ought to be. Keenleyside & Prince 1976.

  had broken off. Hart et al. 2001.

  Automobiles as Nutcrackers?” Maple 1974.

  Automobiles as Nutcrackers.” Grobecker & Pietsch 1978.

  Anecdote to the Test.” Cristol et al. 1997.

  wheels of cars. Pollack 1992; Davies n.d.; Nikon Web Magazine 2000.

  to younger crows. Nikon Web Magazine 2000.

  nonhuman tool wielders. Schmid 2002.

  snap off nearby trees. Hunt 2000.

  use hooked instruments.” Hunt & Gray 2002.

  for ravens’ nests. Janes 1976.

  it wasn’t pretty. Cited in Beck 1980.

  who know how. Thouless et al. 1989.

  the yellowhead jawfish? Colin 1973.

  sweet little nests.) Charles-Dominique 1977.

  chimpanzees and bonobos. Barbara Fruth and Gottfried Hohmann, “Comparative Analyses of Nest Building Behavior in Bonobos and Chimpanzees,” pp. 109–128 in Wrangham et al. 1994.

  tool we see today.” Barbara Fruth and Gottfried Hohmann, “Nest Building Behavior in the Great Apes: The Great Leap Forward?” pp. 225–240 in McGrew et al. 1996.

  make ground nests. Anne E. Russon, “Exploiting the Expertise of Others,” pp. 174–206 in Whiten & Byrne 1997.

  in the village weaver. Collias & Collias 1984.

  water from Otter Creek. Hasler 1966.

  remarkable old age. Kipps 1953.

  crippled by polio.) Kummer & Goodall 1985.

  CHAPTER EIGHT: HOW TO GET CULTURED

  fish cooperatively. Pryor et al. 1990; Simões-Lopes et al. 1998.

  learning from others.” de Waal 2001.

  no culture without language. Cited in Whiten et al. 1999.

  nonsubsistence, and naturalness. Christophe Boesch, “Three Approaches for Assessing Chimpanzee Culture,” pp. 404–429 in Russon et al. 1996.

  considers cultural behavior. Michael Tomasello, “Cultural Transmission in the Tool Use and Communicatory Signaling of Chimpanzees?” pp. 274–311 in Parker & Gibson 1990.

  and Kinji Imanishi. de Waal 2001; Sue Taylor Parker and Anne E. Russon, “On the Wild Side of Culture and Cognition in the Great Apes,” pp. 430–450 in Russon et al. 1996.

  to dig for edible roots. Kummer 1995.

  assets to elephant herds. McComb et al. 2001.

  breed after 40. James R. Boran and Sara L. Heimlich, “Social Learning in Cetaceans: Hunting, Hearing and Hierarchies,” pp. 282–307 in Box & Gibson 1999.

  his 85-year-old mother. Diamond 2001.

  trait of female dispersal. Sue Taylor Parker and Anne E. Russon, “On the Wild Side of Culture and Cognition in the Great Apes,” pp. 430–450 in Russon et al. 1996.

  struggled to master. Duane M. Rumbaugh, E. Sue Savage-Rumbaugh, and Rose A. Sevcik, “Biobehavioral Roots of Language: A Comparative Perspective of Chimpanzee, Child, and Culture,” pp. 319–334 in Wrangham et al. 1994.

  chart their genealogies. Price & Wiley 2000.

  sophistication and grandeur. Collias & Collias 1984; Borgia 1986.

  into the bower itself. Vellenga, cited in Diamond 1982.

  distinctly different bowers. Diamond 1986, 1988.

  slight genetic differences. Uy 2002.

  case of stone handling. Michael A. Huffman, “Acquisition of Innovative Cultural Behaviors in Nonhuman Primates: A Case Study of Stone Handling, a Socially Transmitted Behavior in Japanese Macaques,” pp. 267–289 in Heyes & Galef 1996; de Waal 2001.

  went wild over headstands. Morton 2002.

  dolphins one summer. Pryor 1975.

  hours of humpback song. Noad et al. 2000; Davidson 2000.

  relaxing in trees. Schaller 1972.

  to their own devices. Katharine Milton, “Diet and Social Organization of a Free-Ranging Spider Monkey Population: The Development of Species-Typical Behavior in the Absence of Adults,” pp. 173–181 in Pereira & Fairbanks 1993.

  two species of macaques. de Waal 1996.

  colonies of chimpanzees. Richard W. Wrangham, Frans B. M. de Waal, and W. C. McGrew, “The Challenge of Behavioral Diversity,” pp. 1–18 in Wrangham et al. 1994.

  5 meters by 10 meters. Kathleen Morgan, Fabienne Mondesir, Katherine Buell, Phyllis Guy, Sonia Pizarro, Victoria Carmella, Kate Hunt, Nicki Anderson, and Sarah Leahy, “Changes in Animal Behavior, Visitor Behavior, and Visitor Attitude with a Change in Exhibit,” a presentation at Chimpanzoo 2002 conference; “Southwick’s Wild Animal Farm, a Gem in Central Massachusetts,” viewed at http://www.epinions.com/content_22753480324.

  females were giving birth. Itani 1959.

  partly reared in captivity. Galdikas 1995.

  large, gentle silverback. Shumaker 1993.

  in the Kalahari Desert. Thomas 1994.

  male-female relationships. Kummer 1995.

  on the coral reef. Helfman & Schultz 1984.

  in the late afternoon. Prins 1996.

  stormy days in fall. Lorenz 1978.

  with a different route. International Crane Foundation, “Whooping Crane Migration.” 265 same routes each year. David R. Klein, “Comparative Social Learning among Arctic Herbivores: The Caribou, Muskox and Arctic Hare,” pp. 126–140 in Box & Gibson 1999; Es
pmark 1970.

  groups across Africa. Whiten et al. 1999.

  the Sassandra River. Boesch et al. 1994; Christophe Boesch, “Three Approaches for Assessing Chimpanzee Culture,” pp. 404–429 in Russon et al. 1996.

  off the coast of Liberia. Agoramoorthy & Hsu 1999.

  together in large cages. The Economist, January 25, 2003.

  in the subsequent fall. Ross 2002.

  getting food from people. Russon 2000.

  Chantek her foster son. H. Lyn White Miles, “The Argument for Ape Personhood,” presentation at Chimpanzoo 2002 conference.

  to imitate a demonstrator. Tomasello et al. 1993; Michael Tomasello, “The Question of Chimpanzee Culture,” pp. 301–317 in Wrangham et al. 1994.

  takes a different view. de Waal 2001.

  and took it up herself. Sumita et al. 1985.

  are to imitate strangers. Cited in Christophe Boesch, “Three Approaches for Assessing Chimpanzee Culture,” pp. 404–429 in Russon et al. 1996.

  animals seem to get smarter. Ibid.

  CHAPTER NINE: PARENTING AND TEACHING

  gorilla, Dolly. Joines 1977.

  review some strategies. Choudhury & Black 1993.

  not a robot or dummy. Mason 1945.

  mating-for-life camp. Yamamoto et al. 1989.

  an inexperienced male. Butler & Merton 1992.

  and they’re decisive. Dilger 1962.

  not be so simple for beginners. Miller et al. 1996.

  expert Ron Tilson. Ron Tilson, personal communication.

  normal sexual behavior. Rogers & Davenport 1969.

  had not worked this out. Snyder & Snyder 2000.

  cold snaps in the weather. Marzluff 1988.

  rather late in the game. Stanley A. Temple, “Manipulating Behavioral Patterns of Endangered Birds: A Potential Management Technique,” pp. 435–443 in Temple 1977.

  raise the resultant ducklings. Robertson 1998.

  cubs who aren’t their own. Holden 2001.

  to adopt orphaned chicks White & Millham 1993.

  brought to Simon Thomsett. Thomsett 1983.

  giving birth to nine pups. Askins 2002.

  will try to get adopted. Davies 2000.

  foaling for the first time. Sarah McCarthy, personal communication.

  the calf up, and caress it. Grunwald 1995.

  is an endangered species. Kunz et al. 1994.

  had never had a baby before. Savage-Rumbaugh et al. 1998.

  at the Seattle Zoo. Keiter et al. 1983.

  every time it approached. Morton 2002.

  Maud was weaning him. Galdikas 1995.

  mother when weaning. Toshisada Nishida, “Deceptive Behavior in Young Chimpanzees: An Essay,” pp. 285–292 in Nishida 1990.

  mother Fifi had another baby. Frans B. M. de Waal, “Conflict as Negotiation,” pp. 159–172 in McGrew et al. 1996.

  the trials of her son Kanzi. Savage-Rumbaugh et al. 1998.

  flick it away from them. Kummer & Goodall 1985.

  moved PN’s hand away. Mariko Huraiwa-Hasegawa, “A Note on the Ontogeny of Feeding,” pp. 277–283 in Nishida 1990.

  successfully hatched two chicks. Pittman 2003.

  their care more successfully. Cameron et al. 2000.

  which are long-lived. Eileen C. Rees, Pia Lievesley, Richard A. Pettifor, and Christopher Perrins, “Mate Fidelity in Swans: An Interspecific Comparison,” pp. 118–137 in Black 1996.

  they are together. Jeffrey M. Black, Sharmila Choudhury, and Myrfen Owen, “Do Barnacle Geese Benefit from Lifelong Monogamy?” pp. 91–117 in Black 1996.

  newlyweds. Susan Hannon & Kathy Martin, “Mate Fidelity and Divorce in Ptarmigan: Polygyny Avoidance on the Tundra,” pp. 192–210 in Black 1996.

  excel at keeping chicks alive. William J. Sydeman, Peer Pyle, Steven D. Emslie, and Elizabeth D. McLaren, “Causes and Consequences of Long-Term Partnerships in Cassin’s Auklets,” pp. 211–222 in Black 1996.

  earlier in the season. James A. Mills, John Yarrall, and Deborah A. Mills, “Causes and Consequences of Mate Fidelity in Red-Billed Gulls,” pp. 286–304 in Black 1996.

  at the breeding ground? Tony D. Williams, “Mate Fidelity in Penguins,” pp. 269–285 in Black 1996.

  attracted to actual dotards. Avital & Jablonka 2000.

  with an older bird. I. Newton and I. Wylie, “Monogamy in the Sparrowhawk,” pp. 249–267 in Black 1996.

  and tattered ears. Goodall 1986.

  approached the older female. Cited in Goodall 1986.

  started their own families. Komdeur 1996.

  some they do not. Marzluff & Balda 1992.

  leave all child care to the mother. Wang & Insel 1996.

  coaching, and active teaching. Caro & Hauser 1992.

  the infant’s mental state. Maestripieri 1995.

  infants to crawl and walk. Ibid.

  put a lot of time into it. Katharine Milton, “Foraging Behaviour and the Evolution of Primate Intelligence,” pp. 285–305 in Byrne & Whiten 1988.

  orphaned pallid bats one year. Patricia Winters, personal communication.

  followed by their cubs. Barrie K. Gilbert, “Opportunities for Social Learning in Bears,” pp. 225–235 in Box & Gibson 1999; Bailey & Faust 1984.

  in the dusky wood rat. Burton 1956.

  may nip them on the nose. Liers 1951.

  reason for this caution. Reiss 1991.

  this dangerous activity. Goodall 1986; Charles H. Janson and Carel P. van Schaik, “Ecological Risk Aversion in Juvenile Primates: Slow and Steady Wins the Race,” pp. 57–74 in Pereira & Fairbanks 1993.

  parents wherever they go. Lorenz 1978.

  very little direct instruction. Thomas Wynn, “Layers of Thinking in Tool Behavior,” pp. 389–406 in Gibson & Ingold 1993.

  facilitation, and active teaching. Christophe Boesch, “Aspects of Transmission of Tool-Use in Wild Chimpanzees,” pp. 171–183 in Gibson & Ingold 1993.