The Deluge
Page 68
6.PWW, vol. 53, 336–7.
7.Journal officiel de la République française (Paris, 1918), 29 December 1918, vol. 50, 3,732ff.
8.PWW, vol. 53, 571.
9.Amongst the few to recognize this, W. R. Keylor, ‘France’s Futile Quest for American Military Protection, 1919–22’, in M. Petricioli and M. Guderzo (eds), Une Occasion manquée? 1922: La reconstruction de L’Europe (Frankfurt, 1995), 62.
10.G. Clemenceau, Grandeur and Misery of Victory (New York, 1930), 202. A reference to Blaise Pascal picked up in G. Dallas, At the Heart of a Tiger: Clemenceau and His World 1841–1929 (London, 1993), 481. See also his 1910 speech on democracy and war in G. Clemenceau, Sur la Démocratie: neuf conférences (Paris, 1930), 117–34.
11.D. Demko, Léon Bourgeois: Philosophe de la solidarité (Paris, 2001); C. Bouchard, Le Citoyen et l’ordre mondial 1914–1919 (Paris, 2008); S. Audier, Léon Bourgeois: Fonder la solidarité (Paris, 2007).
12.P. J. Yearwood, Guarantee of Peace: The League of Nations in British Policy (Oxford, 2009), 139.
13.F. Meinecke, Machiavellism: The Doctrine of Raison d’Etat and its Place in Modern History (New Haven, CT, 1962), 423–4, and Schmitt, Positionen.
14.F. R. Dickinson, War and National Reinvention: Japan in the Great War 1914–1919 (Cambridge MA, 1999), 212–18.
15.L. Connors, The Emperor’s Adviser: Saionji Kinmochi and Pre-War Japanese Politics (Oxford, 1987), 60–66.
16.S. Naoko, Japan, Race and Equality: The Racial Equality Proposal of 1919 (London, 2003), 61.
17.PWW, vol. 53, 622; M. Macmillan, Peacemakers: The Paris Conference of 1919 and its Attempt to End War (London, 2001), 154–5.
18.D. H. Miller, The Drafting of the Covenant [hereafter DC] (New York, 1928), vol. 2, 64–105.
19.DC, vol. 1, 138.
20.Ibid., 146–7. The phrase is Eyre Crowe’s; see H. Nicolson, Peacemaking, 1919 (London, 1933), 226.
21.DC, vol. 1, 162.
22.Ibid.,152.
23.Ibid., 160.
24.Ibid., 160–62.
25.Knock, To End All Wars, 218.
26.DC, vol. 1, 160.
27.Ibid., 166.
28.Ibid., 165.
29.Ibid., 165.
30.Ibid., 167.
31.DC, vol. 2, 303.
32.DC, vol. 1, 216–17.
33.DC, vol. 2, 294.
34.Ibid., 293.
35.Ibid., 264.
36.Ibid., 297.
37.DC, vol. 1, 262.
38.PWW, vol. 57, 126–7.
39.S. Bonsal, Unfinished Business (New York, 1944), 202–17.
40.A. Anghie, Imperialism, Sovereignty and the Making of International Law (Cambridge, 2004); M. Mazower, No Enchanted Palace: The End of Empire and the Ideological Origins of the United Nations (Princeton, NJ, 2009).
41.Yearwood, Guarantee, and G. W. Egerton, Great Britain and the Creation of the League of Nations (Chapel Hill, NC, 1978).
42.PWW, vol. 53, 427.
43.Ibid., 320–21.
44.J. W. Jones, ‘The Naval Battle of Paris’, Naval War College Review 62 (2009), 77–89.
45.The confusion of America’s position was admitted by the administration’s own advisory staff; PWW, vol. 57, 180.
46.Ibid., 91–2.
47.Egerton, Great Britain and the League, 158.
48.R. Dingman, Power in the Pacific: The Origins of Naval Arms Limitation, 1914–22 (Chicago, IL, 1976), 86–7; PWW, vol. 57, 142–4, 216–17.
14 ‘THE TRUTH ABOUT THE TREATY’
1.J. Bainville, Les Conséquences politiques de la paix (Paris, 1920), 25.
2.The narrative that has extended down to M. Macmillan, Peacemakers: The Paris Conference of 1919 and its Attempt to End War (London, 2001).
3.M. Trachtenberg, Reparation in World Politics: France and European Economic Diplomacy, 1916–1923 (New York, 1980), 48–52.
4.Perhaps the most vivid and self-conscious record of this cycle is H. Nicolson, Peacemaking, 1919 (London, 1933); A. Lentin, Lloyd George, Woodrow Wilson and the Guilt of Germany (Leicester, 1984), and A. Lentin, Lloyd George and the Lost Peace: From Versailles to Hitler, 1919–1940 (Basingstoke, 2001).
5.Bainville, Conséquences, 25–9.
6.G. Clemenceau, Grandeur and Misery of Victory (New York, 1930), 144–207.
7.A. Thiers, Discours parlementaire: 3eme partie 1865–1866 (Paris, 1881), 645–6.
8.Clemenceau, Grandeur, 185.
9.C. Clark, Iron Kingdom: The Rise and Downfall of Prussia, 1600–1947 (London, 2006); P. Schroeder, The Transformation of European Politics, 1763–1848 (Oxford, 1994), and P. Schroeder, Austria, Great Britain, and the Crimean War: The Destruction of the European Concert (Ithaca, NY, 1972).
10.A. S. Link (ed.) et al., The Papers of Woodrow Wilson [hereafter PWW], 69 vols (Princeton, NJ, 1966–94), vol. 54, 466.
11.M. Beloff, Imperial Sunset, vol. 1, Britain’s Liberal Empire, 1897–1921 (London, 1969, and Basingstoke, 1989), 289–90.
12.W. McDougall, France’s Rhineland Diplomacy, 1914–1924: The Last Bid for a Balance of Power in Europe (Princeton, NJ, 1978).
13.For a German view see B. Wendt, ‘Lloyd George’s Fontainebleau Memorandum’, in U. Lehmkuhl, C. Wurm and H. Zimmermann (eds), Deutschland, Grossbritannien, Amerika (Wiesbaden, 2003), 27–45. For the anti-French atmosphere, see J. Cairns, ‘A Nation of Shopkeepers in Search of a Suitable France: 1919–40’, The American Historical Review 79 (June 1974), 714.
14.PWW, vol. 57, 50–61.
15.A. Tardieu, The Truth About the Treaty (London, 1921).
16.N. Angell, The Great Illusion (New York, 1910).
17.J. Horne and A. Kramer, ‘German “Atrocities” and Franco-German Opinion, 1914: The Evidence of German Soldiers’ Diaries’, The Journal of Modern History 66 (1994), 1–33; I. Hull, Absolute Destruction: Military Culture and the Practices of War in Imperial Germany (Ithaca, NY, 2005).
18.I. Renz, G. Krumeich and G. Hirschfeld, Scorched Earth: The Germans on the Somme 1914–18 (Barnsley, 2009).
19.J. M. Keynes, The Economic Consequences of the Peace (London, 1919), 126–8.
20.F. W. O’Brien, Two Peacemakers in Paris: The Hoover-Wilson Post-Armistice Letters, 1918–1920 (College Station, TX, 1978), 65.
21.PWW, vol. 57, 120–30, 316.
22.D. Stevenson, ‘France at the Paris Peace Conference’, in R. Boyce (ed.), French Foreign and Defence Policy, 1918–1940 (London, 1998), 10–29.
23.G. Dallas, At the Heart of a Tiger: Clemenceau and His World, 1841–1929 (London, 1993), 566.
24.See for instance the critique of these compromises by Poincaré, PWW, vol. 58, 211–14.
25.PWW, vol. 57, 279.
26.W. Wilson, The Public Papers of Woodrow Wilson (New York, 1927), 523.
27.Nicolson, Peacemaking, 32.
28.P. Mantoux, The Deliberations of the Council of Four, trans. and ed. A. S. Link (Princeton, NJ, 1992), vol. 1, 144–5.
29.S. Wambaugh, Plebiscites Since the World War (Washington, DC, 1933), vol. 1, 33–62, 206–70.
30.P. Wandycz, France and her Eastern Allies, 1919–1925 (Minneapolis, MN, 1962).
31.Mantoux, Deliberations, vol. 2, 452–5.
32.E. Mantoux, The Carthaginian Peace – Or the Economic Consequences of Mr. Keynes (London, 1946).
33.J. Hagen, ‘Mapping the Polish Corridor: Ethnicity, Economics and Geopolitics’, Imago Mundi: The International Journal for the History of Cartography 62 (2009), 63–82.
34.R. Blanke, Orphans of Versailles: The Germans in Western Poland, 1918–1939 (Lexington, KY, 1993).
35.A. Demshuk, The Lost German East: Forced Migration and the Politics of Memory, 19
45–1970 (Cambridge, 2012).
36.Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States: Lansing Papers [hereafter FRUS: Lansing Papers] (Washington, DC, 1940), vol. 2, 26.
37.Clemenceau, Grandeur, 162–3.
38.FRUS: Lansing Papers, vol. 2, 27.
39.PWW, vol. 57, 151.
40.R. Boyce, The Great Interwar Crisis and the Collapse of Globalization (Basingstoke, 2009), 52–5.
41.A. Orzoff, Battle for the Castle: The Myth of Czechoslovakia in Europe, 1914–1948 (Oxford, 2009).
42.D. Miller, Forging Political Compromise: Antonin Svehla and the Czechoslovak Republican Party, 1918–1933 (Pittsburgh, NJ, 1999); W. Blackwood, ‘Socialism, Czechoslovakism, and the Munich Complex, 1918–1948’, The International History Review 21 (1999), 875–99.
43.A. Polonsky, Politics in Independent Poland, 1921–1939: The Crisis of Constitutional Government (Oxford, 1972).
44.T. Snyder, The Reconstruction of Nations: Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus, 1569–1999 (New Haven, CT, 2003).
45.D. Durand, ‘Currency Inflation in Eastern Europe with Special Reference to Poland’, The American Economic Review 13 (1923), 593–608.
46.N. Davies, ‘Lloyd George and Poland, 1919–20’, Journal of Contemporary History 6 (1971), 132–54.
47.D. L. George, Memoir of the Peace Conference (New Haven, CT, 1939), vol. 1, 266–73.
48.Boyce, Great Interwar Crisis, 51.
49.M. Mazower, ‘Minorities and the League of Nations in Interwar Europe’, Daedalus 126 (1997), 47–63.
50.Wambaugh, Plebiscites, vol. 1, 249.
51.G. Manceron (ed.), 1885: Le tournant colonial de la République: Jules Ferry contre Georges Clemenceau, et autres affrontements parlementaires sur la conquête coloniale (Paris, 2006).
52.As supposed for instance by F. Meinecke, Machiavellism: The Doctrine of Raison d’Etat and its Place in Modern History (New Haven, CT, 1962), 432.
53.C. Schmitt, Positionen und Begriffe im Kampf mit Weimar-Genf-Versailles, 1923–1939 (Hamburg, 1940).
15 REPARATIONS
1.H. Winkler, Arbeiter und Arbeiterbewegung in der Weimarer Republik, 1918–1924 (Berlin, 1987), 185.
2. C. Schmitt, Positionen und Begriffe im Kampf mit Weimar-Genf-Versailles, 1923–1939 (Hamburg, 1940).
3.G. D. Feldman, The Great Disorder: Politics, Economics, and Society in the German Inflation, 1914–1924 (Oxford, 1993), 434.
4.M. Horn, Britain, France, and the Financing of the First World War (Montreal, 2002).
5.D. Artaud, La Question des dettes interalliées et la reconstruction de l’Europe, 1917–1929 (Lille, 1978).
6.G.-H. Soutou, L’Or et le Sang: Les Buts de guerre économique de la Première Guerre Mondiale (Paris, 1989), 777–805.
7.G. Rousseau, Étienne Clémentel (Clermont-Ferrand, 1998), 18; P. Rabinow, French Modern: Norms and Forms of the Social Environment (Chicago, IL, 1995), 325, suggests the apt designation as ‘middling modernism’.
8.E. Clémentel, La France et la politique économique interalliée (Paris, 1931).
9.M. Trachtenberg, Reparation in World Politics: France and European Economic Diplomacy, 1916–1923 (New York, 1980), 5.
10.W. McDougall, ‘Political Economy versus National Sovereignty: French Structures for German Economic Integration after Versailles’, The Journal of Modern History 51 (1979), 4–23.
11.E. Roussel, Jean Monnet (Paris, 1996), 33–44.
12.F. Duchène, Jean Monnet (New York, 1994), 40; J. Monnet, Memoirs (London, 1978), 75.
13.R. S. Baker, Woodrow Wilson and the World Settlement (New York, 1922), vol. 3, 322.
14.W. R. Keylor, ‘Versailles and International Diplomacy’, in M. Boemeke, R. Chickering and E. Glaser (eds), The Treaty of Versailles: A Reassessment After 75 Years (Washington, DC, 1998), 498.
15.F. W. O’Brien, Two Peacemakers in Paris: The Hoover-Wilson Post-Armistice Letters, 1918–1920 (College Station, TX, 1978), 4.
16.Ibid., 156–61.
17.Trachtenberg, Reparations, 34.
18.S. Lauzanne, ‘Can France Carry Her Fiscal Burden?’, The North American Review 214 (1921), 603–9.
19.A. Lentin, The Last Political Law Lord: Lord Sumner (Cambridge, 2008), 81–104; R. E. Bunselmeyer, The Cost of the War, 1914–1919: British Economic War Aims and the Origins of Reparation (Hamden, CT, 1975).
20.P. M. Burnett, Reparation at the Paris Peace Conference (New York, 1940), vol. 1, Document 211, 777.
21.Ibid., Document 210, 776.
22.Ibid., Document 246, 857–8.
23.Ibid., Document 234, 824, and Document 262, 898–903.
24.Two Peacemakers, 118–19.
25.J. M. Keynes, Revision of the Treaty (London, 1922), 3–4.
26.Summarized brilliantly in E. Mantoux, The Carthaginian Peace; or, The Economic Consequences of Mr. Keynes (New York, 1952).
27.V. Serge, Memoirs of a Revolutionary (Oxford, 1963), 102, and L. Trotsky, The First Five Years of the Communist International (Moscow, 1924), vol. 1, 351.
28.N. Ferguson, Paper & Iron: Hamburg Business and German Politics in the Era of Inflation, 1897–1927 (Cambridge, 1995).
29.E. Johnson and D. Moggridge (eds), The Collected Writings of John Maynard Keynes (Cambridge, 2012), vol. 16, 156–84.
30.R. Skidelsky, John Maynard Keynes: Hopes Betrayed, 1883–1920 (London, 1983), vol. 1, 317.
31.J. M. Keynes, The Economic Consequences of the Peace (London, 1919), 5, reiterated 253.
32.Ibid., 146–50.
33.Ibid., 269.
34.Artaud, La Question des dettes interalliées, vol. 1, 116.
35.D. P. Silverman, Reconstructing Europe after the Great War (Cambridge, MA, 1982), 32.
36.A. Tardieu, The Truth About the Treaty (Indianapolis, IN, 1921), 344.
37.Silverman, Reconstructing Europe, 39.
38.Keynes, Collected Writings, vol. 16, 422.
39.Ibid., 426–7.
40.Keynes, Economic Consequences, 283–8.
41.Keynes, Collected Writings, vol. 16, 428–36.
42.Ibid., 434.
43.Silverman, Reconstructing Europe, 36.
44.A. Orde, British Policy and European Reconstruction after the First World War (Cambridge, 1990), 57.
45.Hoover to Wilson, 11 April 1919, Two Peacemakers, 112–15.
46.Baker, Woodrow Wilson, vol. 3, 344–6.
47.Ibid., 373–5.
48.L. Gardner, Safe for Democracy: The Anglo-American Response to Revolution, 1913–1923 (Oxford, 1987), 247; F. Costigliola, Awkward Dominion: American Political, Economic, and Cultural Relations with Europe, 1919–1933 (Ithaca, NY, 1987), 35.
49.Two Peacemakers, 196–203.
50.B. D. Rhodes, ‘Reassessing “Uncle Shylock”: The United States and the French War Debt, 1917–1929’, The Journal of American History 55 (March 1969), 791.
51.Silverman, Reconstructing Europe, 171, 205–11.
16 COMPLIANCE IN EUROPE
1.A. Hitler, Mein Kampf (Munich, 1925–7).
2.H. J. Burgwyn, The Legend of the Mutilated Victory: Italy, the Great War, and the Paris Peace Conference, 1915–1919 (Westport, CT, 1993), 300.
3.S. Falasca-Zamponi, Fascist Spectacle (Berkeley, CA, 1997), 32, 163–4.
4.For Mussolini see A. Mayer, Politics and Diplomacy: Containment and Counter-Revolution at Versailles, 1918–1919 (New York, 1967), 206–7, and P. O’Brien, Mussolini in the First World War: The Journalist, the Soldier, the Fascist (Oxford, 2005), 151. For Hitler, Mein Kampf, 712–13.
5.Mayer, Politics and Diplomacy, 219–20.
6.Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States: Lansing Papers (Washington, DC, 1940
), vol. 2, 89–90.
7.H. Nicolson, Peacemaking, 1919 (London, 1933), 161.
8.A. S. Link (ed.) et al., The Papers of Woodrow Wilson [hereafter PWW], 69 vols (Princeton, NJ, 1966–94), vol. 57, 614.
9.Burgwyn, The Legend, 256–8.
10.PWW, vol. 57, 432–3.
11.PWW, vol. 58, 19.
12.PWW, vol. 57, 527.
13.PWW, vol. 58, 7.
14.D. Rossini, Woodrow Wilson and the American Myth in Italy (Cambridge, MA, 2008), 117–23.
15.Ibid., 131.
16.PWW, vol. 58, 142.
17.Ibid., 47.
18.PWW, vol. 57, 70.
19.PWW, vol. 58, 4.
20.Ibid., 59.
21.Ibid., 91–3.
22.Burgwyn, Legend, 281.
23.Nicolson, Peacemaking, 319.
24.PWW, vol. 58, 143.
25.D. J. Forsyth, The Crisis of Liberal Italy (Cambridge, 1993), 205.
26.L. Hautecoeur, L’Italie sous le Ministère Orlando, 1917–1919 (Paris, 1919), 209–10.
27.M. Knox, To the Threshold of Power, 1922/33: Origins and Dynamics of the Fascist and National Socialist Dictatorships (Cambridge, 2007), vol. 1, 307–10.
28.G. Salvemini, The Origins of Fascism in Italy (New York, 1973), 230.
29.Akten der Reichskanzlei Das Kabinett Scheidemann (AdR DKS), Nr 66, 303.
30.Ibid., 303–06.
31.Ibid., 8 May 1919, 306, and AdR DKS Nr 70, 12 May 1919, 314–16.
32.P. Scheidemann, The Making of a New Germany (New York, 1928), 24–5.
33.AdR DKS Nr 15, 63, and Nr 20, 85–91. See also K. Kautsky, Wie der Weltkrieg Entstand (Berlin, 1919).
34.AdR DKS Nr 79, 19 May 1919, 350–51.
35.AdR DKS Nr 67, 9 May 1919, 308.
36.AdR DKS Nr 80, 20 May 1919, 354.
37.Ibid., 20 May 1919, 358–9, Nr 86, 26 May 1919, 375, Nr 87, 26 May 1919, 379–80.
38.AdR DKS Nr 84, 23 May 1919, 368–9.
39.P. Krüger, ‘Die Reparationen und das Scheitern einer deutschen Verständigungspolitik auf der Pariser Friedenskonferenz im Jahre 1919’, Historische Zeitschrift 221 (1975), 336–8.
40.L. Haupts, Deutsche Friedenspolitik, 1918–19: eine Alternative zur Machtpolitik des Ersten Weltkrieges (Düsseldorf, 1976), 329–72.