The Deluge

by Adam Tooze

  55.Artaud, ‘La question’, in Petricioli and Guderzo (eds), Occasion manquée, 87.

  56.S. A. Schuker, ‘American Policy Towards Debts and Reconstruction’, in C. Fink (ed.), Genoa, Rapallo and European Reconstruction in 1922 (Cambridge, 1991), 98.

  57.M. Leffler, ‘The Origins of Republican War Debt Policy, 1921–1923: A Case Study in the Applicability of the Open Door Interpretation’, The Journal of American History 59 (1972), 593.

  58.A. Orde, British Policy and European Reconstruction after the First World War (Cambridge, 1990), 173–4.

  20 CRISIS OF EMPIRE

  1.J. Gallagher, ‘Nationalisms and the Crisis of Empire, 1919–1922’, Modern Asian Studies 15 (1981), 355–68.

  2.W. F. Elkins, ‘Black Power in the British West Indies: The Trinidad Longshoremen’s Strike of 1919’, Science and Society 33 (1969), 71–5.

  3.I. Abdullah, ‘Rethinking the Freetown Crowd: The Moral Economy of the 1919 Strikes and Riot in Sierra Leone’, Canadian Journal of African Studies/Revue Canadienne des Études Africaines 28, no. 2 (1994), 197–218.

  4.T. Yoshikuni, ‘Strike Action and Self-Help Associations: Zimbabwean Worker Protest and Culture after World War I’, Journal of Southern African Studies 15, no. 3 (April 1989), 440–68.

  5.D. Killingray, ‘Repercussions of World War I in the Gold Coast’, The Journal of African History 19 (1978), 39–59; A. Olukoju, ‘Maritime Trade in Lagos in the Aftermath of the First World War’, African Economic History 20 (1992), 119–35; A. Olukoju, ‘Anatomy of Business-Government Relations: Fiscal Policy and Mercantile Pressure Group Activity in Nigeria, 1916–1933’, African Studies Review 38 (1995), 23–50.

  6.R. Ally, Gold and Empire: The Bank of England and South Africa’s Gold Producers, 1886–1926 (Johannesburg, 1994); J. Krikler, ‘The Commandos: The Army of White Labour in South Africa’, Past and Present 163 (1999), 202–44; A. Clayton, The British Empire as a Superpower, 1919–39 (Basingstoke, 1986), 241–4; J. Krikler, White Rising: The 1922 Insurrection and Racial Killing in South Africa (Manchester, 2005).

  7.C. Townsend, The British Campaign in Ireland, 1919–1921 (Oxford, 1975).

  8.W. Wilson, Letters, 250, 266–72.

  9.J. Lawrence, ‘Forging a Peaceable Kingdom: War, Violence, and Fear of Brutalization in Post-First World War Britain’, The Journal of Modern History 75, no. 3 (September 2003), 557–89.

  10.M. Beloff, Imperial Sunset: Britain’s Liberal Empire, 1897–1921 (London, 1969), vol. 1, 314.

  11.M. Hopkinson, ‘President Woodrow Wilson and the Irish Question’, Studia Hibernica 27 (1993), 89–111.

  12.An essential guide is J. Darwin, Britain, Egypt and the Middle East: Imperial Policy in the Aftermath of War, 1918–1922 (London, 1981).

  13.W. Stivers, Supremacy and Oil: Iraq, Turkey, and the Anglo-American World Order, 1918–1930 (Ithaca, NY, 1982), 45–50.

  14.M. W. Daly (ed.), The Cambridge History of Egypt (New York, 1998), vol. 2, 246–7.

  15.Ibid., 247–8. On the lack of British cultural influence see Beloff, Imperial Sunset, vol. 2, 44.

  16.J. Berque, Egypt: Imperialism and Revolution (New York, 1972), 305.

  17.M. Badrawi, Ismail Sidqi, 1875–1950 (Richmond, VA, 1996), 14.

  18.M. A. Rifaat, The Monetary System of Egypt (London, 1935), 63–4; A. E. Crouchley, The Economic Development of Modern Egypt (London, 1938), 197.

  19.Berque, Egypt, 316.

  20.Ibid., 318.

  21.J. L. Thompson, A Wider Patriotism: Alfred Milner and the British Empire (London, 2007), 184–95.

  22.Berque, Egypt, 315–16.

  23.Gallagher, ‘Nationalisms’, 361.

  24.Cited in E. Kedourie, The Chatham House Version and Other Middle-Eastern Studies (London, 1970), 121.

  25.L. Stein, The Balfour Declaration (New York, 1961), 640–45.

  26.E. Monroe, Britain’s Moment in the Middle East, 1914–1956 (Baltimore, MD, 1963), 65–6.

  27.Q. Wright, ‘The Bombardment of Damascus’, The American Journal of International Law 20 (1926), 263–80; D. Eldar, ‘France in Syria: The Abolition of the Sharifian Government, April–July 1920’, Middle Eastern Studies 29 (1993), 487–504.

  28.Stivers, Supremacy and Oil, 84, and E. Kedourie, ‘The Kingdom of Iraq: A Retrospect’, in Kedourie, Chatham House Version, 236–85.

  29.Beloff, Imperial Sunset, vol. 1, 347.

  30.I. Friedman, British Miscalculations: The Rise of Muslim Nationalism, 1918–1925 (New Brunswick, NJ, 2012), 252.

  31.B. Gökay, A Clash of Empires: Turkey between Russian Bolshevism and British Imperialism, 1918–1923 (London, 1997).

  32.B. Lewis, The Emergence of Modern Turkey (Oxford, 1961), 247–51.

  33.Gökay, Clash of Empires, 131.

  34.G. Balachandran, John Bullion’s Empire: Britain’s Gold Problem and India Between the Wars (London, 1996).

  35. B. R. Tomlinson, The Political Economy of the Raj, 1914–1947: The Economics of Decolonization in India (London, 1979).

  36.J. Brown, Gandhi’s Rise to Power: Indian Politics, 1915–1922 (Cambridge, 1972), 161.

  37.Ibid., 231.

  38.Friedman, British Miscalculations, 229.

  39.Brown, Gandhi, 202.

  40.P. Woods, Roots of Parliamentary Democracy in India: Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms, 1917–1923 (Delhi, 1996), 139–40.

  41.A. Rumbold, Watershed in India, 1914–1922 (London, 1979), 160–93.

  42.W. R. Smith, Nationalism and Reform in India (New Haven, CT, 1938), 108–9.

  43.Ibid., 118–19.

  44.Brilliantly elucidated in G. Pandey, ‘Peasant Revolt and Indian Nationalism: The Peasant Movement in Awadh, 1919–1922’, in R. Guha (ed.), Subaltern Studies (Delhi, 1982–9), vol. 1, 143–91.

  45.D. A. Low, ‘The Government of India and the First Non-Cooperation Movement 1920–22’, The Journal of Asian Studies 25 (1966), 247–8.

  46.Rumbold, Watershed, 266–7.

  47.See the report by General Rawlinson to Wilson in Wilson, Letters, 306–7.

  48.Woods, Roots, 157–69.

  49.Low, ‘Government of India’, 252.

  50.Rumbold, Watershed, 294.

  51.Ibid., 301–3.

  52.Monroe, Britain’s Moment, 69–70.

  53.D. Waley, Edwin Montagu (New Delhi, 1964), 270.

  54.K. Mantena, Alibis of Empire: Henry Maine and the Ends of Liberal Imperialism (Princeton, NJ, 2010).

  55.D. A. Low, Lion Rampant: Essays in the Study of British Imperialism (London, 1973), 157.

  56.These are characterizations offered by J. Darwin, ‘Imperialism in Decline?’, Historical Journal 23 (1980), 657–79.

  57.Cooper’s analysis of the French dilemma is highly pertinent, see F. Cooper, Colonialism in Question: Theory, Knowledge, History (Berkeley, CA, 2005). See also Low, Lion Rampant, 70–72.

  58.H. Tinker, Separate and Unequal: India and the Indians in the British Commonwealth, 1920–1950 (Vancouver, 1976), 43–77.

  59.Woods, Roots, 232.

  60.Beloff, Imperial Sunset, vol. 1, 312–13; Waley, Montagu, 258; Beloff, Imperial Sunset, vol. 2, 30.

  21 A CONFERENCE IN WASHINGTON

  1.W. R. Louis, British Strategy in the Far East, 1919–1939 (Oxford, 1971), 50–78; M. Beloff, Imperial Sunset: Britain’s Liberal Empire, 1897–1921 (London, 1969), vol. 1, 318–24.

  2.N. Tracy, The Collective Naval Defence of the Empire, 1900–1940 (London, 1997).

  3.S. Roskill, Naval Policy Between the Wars (New York, 1968), vol. 1, 271–90.

  4.Beloff, Imperial Sunset, vol. 1, 332–43.

  5.L. Gardner, Safe for Democracy: The Anglo-American Response to Revolution, 1913–1923 (Oxford, 1987), 307–9.

  6.
T. H. Buckley, The United States and the Washington Conference, 1921–1922 (Knoxville, TN, 1970), 30–37.

  7.M. G. Fry, Illusions of Security: North Atlantic Diplomacy, 1918–1922 (Toronto, 1972), 144–51.

  8.Roskill, Naval Policy, vol. 1, 311.

  9.As noted by Lansing, who attended; see Buckley, The United States, 74.

  10.‘The Arms Conference in Action’, Current History 15, 3 December 1921, i.

  11.Ibid., xxxii.

  12.A. Iriye, After Imperialism: The Search for a New Order in the Far East, 1921–1931 (Cambridge, MA, 1965), 14.

  13.L. Humphreys, The Way of the Heavenly Sword: The Japanese Army in the 1920s (Stanford, CA, 1995), 46.

  14.Buckley, United States, 59.

  15.I. Gow, Military Intervention in Prewar Japanese Politics: Admiral Kato- Kanji and the ‘Washington System’ (London, 2004), 82–101.

  16.Fry, Illusions of Security, 154–86.

  17.Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States: Lansing Papers (Washington, DC, 1922), vol. 1, 130–33.

  18.B. Martin, France and the Après Guerre, 1918–1924: Illusions and Disillusionment (Baton Rouge, FL, 1999), 87–9.

  19.E. Goldstein and J. Maurer (eds), The Washington Conference, 1921–22: Naval Rivalry, East Asian Stability and the Road to Pearl Harbour (London, 1994).

  20.Roskill, Naval Policy, vol. 1, 354.

  21.D. Wang, China’s Unequal Treaties: Narrating National History (Oxford, 2005).

  22.‘Arms Conference’, Current History 15, 383–4.

  23.G. McCormack, Chang Tso-lin in Northeast China, 1911–1928: China, Japan, and the Manchurian Idea (Stanford, CA, 1977), 52–66.

  24.M. Metzler, Lever of Empire: The International Gold Standard and the Crisis of Liberalism in Prewar Japan (Berkeley, CA, 2005), 129.

  25.E. S. K. Fung, The Diplomacy of Imperial Retreat: Britain’s South China Policy, 1924–1932 (Hong Kong, 1991), 18–25.

  26.Y. Zhang, China in the International System, 1918–1920 (Basingstoke, 1991), 184–5.

  27.W. King, China at the Washington Conference, 1921–1922 (New York, 1963), 18–19.

  28.Goldstein and Maurer, Washington Conference, 263.

  29.See the opinions discussed in King, China, 38–9.

  30.Metzler, Lever of Empire, 127.

  31.Gardner, Safe for Democracy, 313.

  32.Ibid., 313.

  33.Iriye, After Imperialism, 29.

  34.Gardner, Safe for Democracy, 318–19.

  35.Ibid., 320.

  36.R. A. Dayer, Bankers and Diplomats in China, 1917–1925 (London, 1981), 155–61.

  22 REINVENTING COMMUNISM

  1.M. Lewin, Lenin’s Last Struggle (New York, 1968).

  2.As R. Hofheinz, The Broken Wave: The Chinese Communist Peasant Movement, 1922–1928 (Cambridge, MA, 1977), 3, acutely remarked: ‘Not many realize today that the consciously articulated idea of peasant revolution is only a few decades old.’

  3.A. S. Lindemann, The Red Years: European Socialism versus Bolshevism, 1919–1921 (Berkeley, CA, 1974), 48–68.

  4.C. S. Maier, Recasting Bourgeois Europe: Stabilization in France, Germany, and Italy in the Decade after World War I (Princeton, NJ, 1975), 113–74; F. H. Adler, Italian Industrialists from Liberalism to Fascism (New York, 1995), 165–8; G. Salvemini, The Origins of Fascism in Italy (New York, 1973), 206–8.

  5.P. Pastor (ed.), Revolutions and Interventions in Hungary and its Neighbor States, 1918–1919 (Boulder, CO, 1988).

  6.C. Kinvig, Churchill’s Crusade: The British Invasion of Russia, 1918–1920 (London, 2006), 283–5.

  7.N. Davies, White Eagle, Red Star: The Polish-Soviet War, 1919–1920 (London, 1972), 71–6.

  8.R. Pipes, Russia under the Bolshevik Regime (New York, 1994), 91–2.

  9.Davies, White Eagle, Red Star, 90–91.

  10.C. E. Bechhofer, In Denikin’s Russia and the Caucasus, 1918–1920 (London, 1921), 120–22.

  11.T. Snyder, The Reconstruction of Nations: Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus, 1569–1999 (New Haven, CT, 2003), 63–139.

  12.G. A. Brinkley, ‘Allied Policy and French Intervention in the Ukraine, 1917–1920’, in T. Hunczak (ed.), The Ukraine, 1917–1921: A Study in Revolution (Cambridge, MA, 1977), 345–51.

  13.N. Davies, ‘The Missing Revolutionary War’, Soviet Studies 27 (1975), 178–95.

  14.Pipes, Russia under the Bolshevik Regime, 179–83.

  15.T. Fiddick, ‘The “Miracle of the Vistula”: Soviet Policy versus Red Army Strategy’, The Journal of Modern History 45 (1973), 626–43.

  16.For the British response see M. Beloff, Imperial Sunset: Britain’s Liberal Empire, 1897–1921 (London, 1969), vol. 1, 328–9.

  17.J. Degras (ed.), The Communist International: Documents, 1919–1943 (London, 1956–65), vol. 1, 111–13.

  18.Pipes, Russia under the Bolshevik Regime, 177.

  19.O. Ruehle, ‘Report from Moscow’, http://www.marxists.org/archive/ruhle/ 1920/ruhle01.htm.

  20.Lindemann, Red Years, 102–219.

  21.Degras, The Communist International, 1919–1943, 166–72.

  22.J. Jacobson, When the Soviet Union Entered World Politics (Berkeley, CA, 1994), 51–8.

  23.J. P. Haithcox, Communism and Nationalism in India: M. N. Roy and Comintern Policy, 1920–1939 (Princeton, NJ, 1971).

  24.S. White, Britain and the Bolshevik Revolution: A Study in the Politics of Diplomacy, 1920–1924 (London, 1979), 120.

  25.S. Blank, ‘Soviet Politics and the Iranian Revolution of 1919–1921’, Cahiers du Monde russe et soviétique 21 (1980), 173–94.

  26.S. White, ‘Communism and the East: The Baku Congress, 1920’, Slavic Review 33 (1974), 492–514.

  27.J. Riddell (ed.), To See the Dawn: Baku, 1920 – First Congress of the Peoples of the East (New York, 1993), 47–52.

  28.Ibid., 232.

  29.Jacobson, When the Soviet Union, 77.

  30.N. Davies, ‘The Soviet Command and the Battle of Warsaw’, Soviet Studies 23 (1972), 573–85.

  31.H. G. Linke, ‘Der Weg nach Rapallo: Strategie und Taktik der deutschen und sowjetischen Außenpolitik’, Historische Zeitschrift 264 (1997), 63.

  32.Beloff, Imperial Sunset, vol. 1, 328–9.

  33.Pipes, Russia under the Bolshevik Regime, 134, 164.

  34.S. R. Sonyel, ‘Enver Pasha and the Basmaji Movement in Central Asia’, Middle Eastern Studies 26 (1990), 52–64.

  35.Beautifully outlined in Jacobson, When the Soviet Union.

  36.B. Gökay, A Clash of Empires: Turkey between Russian Bolshevism and British Imperialism, 1918–1923 (London, 1997), 148–9.

  37.B. A. Elleman, Diplomacy and Deception: The Secret History of Sino-Soviet Diplomatic Relations, 1917–1927 (Armonk, NY, 1997).

  38.P. Dukes, The USA in the Making of the USSR: The Washington Conference, 1921–1922, and ‘Uninvited Russia’ (New York and London, 2004), 57–61.

  39.J. K. Fairbank and D. Twitchett (eds), The Cambridge History of China, vol. 12, Republican China, 1912–1949, Part 1 (Cambridge, 1983), 541.

  40.A. J. Saich, The Origins of the First United Front in China: The Role of Sneevliet (Alias Maring) (Leiden, 1991).

  41.G. D. Jackson, Comintern and Peasant in Eastern Europe, 1919–1930 (New York, 1966), 93.

  42.Ibid., 60.

  43.Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States: Lansing Papers (Washington, DC, 1921), vol. 2, 805.

  23 GENOA: THE FAILURE OF BRITISH HEGEMONY

  1.B. M. Weissman, Herbert Hoover and Famine Relief to Soviet Russia, 1921–1923 (Stanford, CA, 1974), 15–16.

  2.A. Orde, British Policy and European Reconstruction after the First W
orld War (Cambridge, 1990), 162.

  3.S. White, The Origins of Détente: The Genoa Conference and Soviet-Western Relations, 1921–1922 (Cambridge, 1985), 26–7.

  4.Orde, British Policy, 163; C. Fink, The Genoa Conference: European Diplomacy, 1921–1922 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1984), 6.

  5.P. Dukes, The USA in the Making of the USSR: The Washington Conference, 1921–1922, and ‘Uninvited Russia’ (New york and London, 2004), 71.

  6.B. Patenaude, The Big Show in Bololand: The American Relief Expedition to Soviet Russia in the Famine of 1921 (Stanford, CA, 2002).

  7.C. M. Edmondson, ‘The Politics of Hunger: The Soviet Response to Famine, 1921’, Soviet Studies 29 (1977), 506–18.

  8.G. D. Feldman, The Great Disorder: Politics, Economics, and Society in the German Inflation, 1914–1924 (Oxford, 1993), 346–412.

  9.Ibid., 388.

  10.G. D. Feldman, Hugo Stinnes: Biographie eines Industriellen 1870–1924 (Munich, 1998), 720–38.

  11.Orde, British Policy, 177.

  12.R. Himmer, ‘Rathenau, Russia, and Rapallo’, Central European History 9 (1976), 146–83.

  13.H. G. Linke, ‘Der Weg nach Rapallo: Strategie und Taktik der deutschen und sowjetischen Außenpolitik’, Historische Zeitschrift 264 (1997), 82.

  14.A. Heywood, Modernising Lenin’s Russia: Economic Reconstruction, Foreign Trade and the Railways (Cambridge, 1999), 6.

  15.Orde, British Policy, 170–78.

  16.B. Martin, France and the Après Guerre, 1918–1924: Illusions and Disillusionment (Baton Rouge, LA, 1999), 96.

  17.Documents on British Foreign Policy, 1919–1939, 1st ser. [hereafter DBFP] (London, 1974), vol. 13–14, 57–8. A shift recently emphasized by P. Jackson, ‘French Security and a British “Continental Commitment” after the First World War: A Reassessment’, English Historical Review CCXVI (2011) 519, 345–85. For the wider background to this shift see A.-M. Lauter, Sicherheit und Reparationen. Die französische Öffentlichkeit, der Rhein und die Ruhr (1919–1923) (Essen, 2006), 232–42, 286–90.

  18.The development of this design is charted in December 1921 and January 1922 in DBFP, vol. 9.

  19.White, The Origins, 45.

  20.Orde, British Policy, 180–82.

  21.Feldman, Great Disorder, 382.