Experiment Eleven
Page 27
87 black market The market became the subject of popular fiction, notably Graham Greene’s The Third Man, which also became a movie.
87 “in their pockets” P. D’Arcy Hart to A. Landsborough Thomson, July 15, 1946, PRO, Streptomycin, FD 1/6751.
87 “well-known to this embassy” Lord Halifax to Ernest Bevin, February 16, 1946, PRO, Streptomycin, FD 1/6751.
87 increasingly troubled by the desperate calls A. N. Richards to Sir Edward Melanby, April 13, 1946, PRO, FD 1/6751.
88 “early optimism” Our Medical Correspondent, “Guarded Optimism,” Times (London), October 2, 1946.
88 British press “Name Is Kept Secret in Drug SOS,” Daily Express (London), November 20, 1946.
88 “really any justification” Streptomycin PRO, MH 58/636.
89 black market for streptomycin Washington Star, April 16, 1946.
89 Porton scientists D. Herbert, Porton Biological Defence Report, no. 54, “Streptomycin in the Treatment of Experimental ‘L’ Infections,” September 20, 1945, PRO, DEFE 55/156.
90 “hit-and-miss” Sir Jack Drummond to Selman Waksman, February 4, 1947, SAW, Streptomycin (British correspondence), box 6, 1.
90 Watching the test Donald Johnstone, author interview, April 16, 2011.
92 “Scientist Tells” “Scientist Tells of New Drug,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, May 17, 1947.
92 “embarrass the rest of the world” Johnstone, author interview, April 16, 2011.
92 “something new and better” “Discoverer of New ‘Wonder Drug Blasts Fantastic Rumors About It,” Newark Star-Ledger, May 26, 1947.
11. Dr. Schatz Goes to Albany
93 “sense of regret” Robert Clothier to Albert Schatz, June 24, 1946, RREF, box 1, 13.
93 “most brilliant student” Elizabeth Clark to Vivian Schatz, September 25, 1947, AS personal archive.
93 “a triumph for the drug’s discoverer” Time, September 16, 1946.
94 “sole credibility” New Jersey Journal of Pharmacy, June 1946, AS, box 6.
94 photograph Albert Schatz to Selman Waksman, November 26, 1946, and Selman Waksman to Albert Schatz, November 29, 1946, SAW, box 14, 4.
94 “better get used to it” Albert Schatz to Selman Waksman, February 3, 1947, SAW, box 14, 4.
95 “determined effort” Richard Baldwin, The Fungus Fighters (Ithaca, NY, and London: Cornell University Press, 1981), 66.
95 lacking enough egg incubators Albert Schatz to Selman Waksman, February 20, 1947, SAW, box 14, 4.
95 “about a year” Selman Waksman to Albert Schatz, February 4, 1947, SAW, box 14, 4.
96 “grow lopsided” Albert Schatz to Doris Jones, July 24, 1946, SAW, box 14, 4.
96 Robeson could sing Photo of Robeson at Livingston Junior High School, Albany, New York, United Press International, May 11, 1947.
97 “12 good eggs” Albert Schatz to Selman Waksman, February 20, 1947, SAW, box 14, 4.
97 “Nothing in science” “The History of Streptomycin,” New York Association of Public Health Laboratories 26 (1946): 68, MW.
12. The Five-Hundred-Dollar Check
99 world’s largest penicillin maker “Merck,” Fortune (June 1946): 106–11.
99 all except staphylococcus “Streptomycin,” Life (February 4, 1946): 57, medicine section.
100 sixteen dollars a gram “Medicine: Streptomycin Wonders,” Time (September 16, 1946).
100 proved to be a dud Jane Stafford, “Is Streptomycin the Atom Bomb in the TB War?” New York World-Telegram (February 19, 1947).
100 Waksman’s 20 percent Rutgers Research and Endowment Foundation, minutes, January 16, 1948, RREF.
100 check for five hundred dollars Jerome Eisenberg, chronology, 1950, MW.
101 “and profit considerably” Albert Schatz to Selman Waksman, January 25, 1948, SAW, box 14, 4.
101 “anything I want to” Albert Schatz to Selman Waksman, February 20, 1948, SAW, box 14, 4.
101 “Peregrinations” Albert Schatz to Selman Waksman, January 31, 1948, SAW, box 14, 4.
102 electrifying teacher Susan Spath, “Van Niel’s Course in General Microbiology,” ASM News 70, no. 8 (2004): 359–63.
102 “a special recommendation” Selman Waksman to Albert Schatz, February 3, 1948, SAW, box 14, 4.
103 “world famed scientist” Edward Robert Isaacs, Rutgers News Service, April 14, 1948.
103 “Winner Takes Life” Bernard Victor Dryer, “Winner Takes Life,” a Cavalcade of America radio program prepared and produced by Batten, Barton, Durstine & Osborne, Inc., for E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Co., February 1948, LOC.
104 offered additional support Selman Waksman to Albert Schatz, June 2, 1948, SAW, box 14, 4.
104 “to impose further” Albert Schatz to Selman Waksman, September 7, 1948, SAW, box 14, 4.
104 “rich as Croesus” Albert Schatz to Selman Waksman, September 19, 1948, SAW, box 14, 4.
105 “most important experiment” Albert Schatz to Selman Waksman, November 22, 1948, SAW, box 14, 4.
105 “pretty tired of hearing about it” Ritch Lovejoy, Round and About, Monterey Peninsula Herald, November 3, 1948.
106 “delighted indeed” Selman Waksman to Albert Schatz, October 14, 1948, SAW, box 14, 4.
13. A Patent That Shaped the World
107 “streptomycin and process of preparation” Selman Waksman and Albert Schatz patent application no. 577,136, February 9, 1945, U.S. Patent no. 2,449,866, granted September 21, 1948, U.S. Patent Office, Washington, D.C.
108 “ten patents that shaped the world” Stacy Jones, “Ten Patents That Shaped the World,” New York Times Magazine, September 17, 1961.
108 poorly stocked medicine chest Peter Temin, Taking Your Medicine: Drug Regulation in the United States (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1980), 59.
109 “products of nature” Richard Seth Epstein, “The Isolation and Purification Exception to the General Unpatentability of Products of Nature,” Columbia Science and Technology Review, January 15, 2003.
109 adrenal glands Joan Bennett, “Adrenaline and Cherry Trees,” Modern Drug Discovery 4, no. 12 (2001): 47–48, 51.
110 “good ground for a patent” Jon Harkness, “Dicta on Adrenalin(e): Myriad Problems with Learned Hand’s Product-of-Nature Pronouncements in Parke, Davis v. Mulford’s,” 44, http://ssrn.com/abstract=1881193.
110 “cannot be claimed per se” Selman Waksman and Boyd Woodruff, U.S. Patent Application, October 2, 1941, no. 413,324, granted June 19, 1945, no. 2378876. See also Marcus v. Waksman et al., SAW, box 16, 2.
110 “lingering doubt” Selman Waksman, amendment, May 17, 1945, to patent application no. 413,424, October 2, 1941.
111 “failed to detect it” Selman Waksman, response to patent examiner’s objections, June 5, 1946, in patent application no. 577,136, February 9, 1945.
111 “many pathogens can grow” Selman Waksman, Microbial Antagonisms and Antibiotic Substances (New York: Commonwealth Fund, 1945), 15.
111 “also in soil” M. I. Nakhimovskaia, “Antagonism Among Bacteria,” Microbiologia 6 (1937): 131–37. Also in Waksman, Microbial Antagonisms, 116.
112 “At other times ... he would say” David Pramer, author interview, March 22, 2011. See also David Pramer, “The Persistence and Biological Effects of Antibiotics in the Soil,” New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station, Rutgers (1957): 221–24.
112 “particularly pleased” Russell Watson to B. R. Armour, September 4, 1948, RREF.
112 “prevent the importation” Russell Watson to B. R. Armour, ibid.
112 “Thus, for the first time” Robert Peck, patent application no. 612,557, August 24, 1945, U. S. Patent Office, Washington, D.C.
113 as a loan Albert Schatz to Selman Waksman, September 7, 1948, SAW, box 14, 4.
113 another $500 check Selman Waksman to Albert Schatz, October 14, 1948, SAW, box 14, 4.
113 treat the checks Selman Waksman to Albert Schatz, November 16, 1948, SAW, box 14, 4.
113 “what to do with t
he money” Albert Schatz to Selman Waksman, November 29, 1948, SAW, box 14, 4.
113 “a certain sum of money” Selman Waksman to Albert Schatz, December 2, 1948, SAW, box 14, 4.
114 his own income tax Ibid.
PART III: THE CHALLENGE
14. The Letter
118 “several matters” Albert Schatz to Selman Waksman, January 22, 1949, SAW, box 14, 4.
120 “To say that I was amazed” Selman Waksman to Albert Schatz, January 28, 1949, SAW, box 14, 4.
121 none of Schatz’s business Hubert Lechevalier to Albert Schatz, February 12, 1993, HL.
124 a mere pair of hands Selman Waksman to Albert Schatz, February 8, 1949, SAW, box 14, 4.
124 Schatz’s name Selman Waksman to J. F. Gerkins, May 7, 1946, SAW, box 14, 2.
15. Choose a Lawyer
126 “without the name of Schatz” Selman Waksman to Rutgers Research and Endowment Foundation, memo, February 2, 1949, SAW.
128 “highly confidential” Selman Waksman to Chester Stock, May 20, 1949, SAW, box 14, 5.
128 “request him to leave” Chester Stock to Selman Waksman, May 21, 1949, SAW, box 14, 5.
129 “very fond of” Gilbert Dalldorf to Albert Schatz, May 17, 1949, LOC.
129 “no skeletons” Doris Jones to Albert Schatz, February 17, 1949, AS.
130 “lose your temper” Seymour Hutner to Albert Schatz, February 28, 1949, AS.
131 “former Passaic man” Passaic Herald-News, May 5, 1949.
131 “Choose a lawyer” Julius Schatz to Albert Schatz, Jerome Eisenberg chronology, June 6, 1949, MW.
131 “Being laymen” M. D. Bromberg Associates letter, June 22, 1949, AS personal archive.
132 “the truth would out” P. P. Pirone to M. H. Bromberg, June 30, 1949, AS personal archive.
132 “absolute fact” Doris Jones to M. D. Bromberg Associates, June 30, 1949, AS personal archive.
133 minimize the part Kent Wight to M. D. Bromberg, July 6, 1949, AS.
133 “happy to give credit” Boyd Woodruff to M. D. Bromberg, August 12, 1949, AS.
133 “Malicious” Selman Waksman, handwritten note on letter from M. D. Bromberg to Elizabeth Clark, June 22, 1949, SAW.
133 “W and W Sleuthing Agency” Russell Watson and Selman Waksman, memo and reports, September 1949, SAW, box 14, 6.
135 “nuisance value” Jerome Eisenberg, chronology, 1950.
135 “die is cast” Seymour Hutner to Milton Wainwright, November 17, 1987, MW.
135 story about antibiotics “The Healing Soil,” Time cover story, November 7, 1949, 70–76.
16. The Road to Court
137 “extra-marital affairs” Albert Schatz to Peter Lawrence and Veronique Mistiaen, undated 2002.
137 “taken for a communist” Jerome Eisenberg, “Recollections, Schatz v. Waksman et al,” 19–39, AS, boxes 3, 34 and 4, 38.
137 “pendulum swung” Hubert Lechevalier to Albert Schatz, March 4, 2001, AS personal archive.
137 “most credible and intelligent” Eisenberg, “recollections,” 21.
138 “moral torment” Ibid., 20.
140 “don’t fail to call on me” Doris Jones to Albert Schatz, March 13, 1950, AS.
140 “certainly stirred up” Doris Jones to Albert Schatz, undated, 1950, AS.
141 “scandalous” A. J. Goldforb to Selman Waksman, March 14, 1950, SAW, box 14, 2. See also Selman Waksman to Russell Watson, March 16, 1950, SAW, box 14, 2.
141 “Since this money” William Steenken to Selman Waksman, March 15, 1950, SAW, box 14, 8.
142 “never expected nor did I want” Selman Waksman to Russell Watson, March 21, 1950, SAW, box 14, 2.
17. Under Oath
143 most interesting depositions Jerome Eisenberg, notes, Schatz v. Waksman, AS, box 3, 4, 1.
143 “with my own fingers” Selman Waksman, deposition Schatz v. Waksman, Superior Court of New Jersey, Chancery Division, Docket C-1261-49, March 25, 1950, 14.
145 “It did not produce streptomycin” Selman Waksman deposition, ibid., 33.
145 “we observed certain cultures” Selman Waksman deposition, ibid., 40.
146 “depends entirely” Selman Waksman, Schatz v. Waksman, 62.
146 “culture in the flask” Selman Waksman deposition, ibid., 62.
147 “could not answer that question” Selman Waksman deposition, ibid., 66.
148 one of my bright students Selman Waksman deposition, ibid., 73.
148 “not true” Selman Waksman deposition, ibid., 116.
149 recognized his contribution Selman Waksman deposition, ibid., 119.
150 total ... $350,000 Selman Waksman deposition, ibid., 99.
151 “Nonsense, never done” Selman Waksman deposition, ibid., 120.
151 “they were independent isolations” Selman Waksman and Albert Schatz, “A review: Streptomycin,” Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association 6, no. 11 (1945): 309.
151 titled Streptomycin Selman Waksman, ed., Streptomycin (Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1949), 11.
152 “Funny business” Jerome Eisenberg, chronology, 1950, MW.
153 “Now tell me” Selman Waksman deposition, ibid., 128.
153 don’t recall who that was Selman Waksman deposition, ibid., 129.
156 “insignificant” Russell Watson to Selman Waksman, February, 10, 1954, SAW, box 14, 6.
156 could not have been true Russell Watson to Selman Waksman, ibid.
156 “Waksman is through” Albert Schatz to Doris Jones, April 19, 1950, AS.
157 “a money conscious fool” Doris Jones to Albert Schatz, undated, 1950, AS.
157–58 “hoodwink the public” “Rutgers Is Too Smart for Its Own Good,” Passaic Herald-News, May 1, 1950.
158 “no attempt to justify” Bob Starkey to Selman Waksman, May 10, 1950, SAW, box 14, 2.
159 “Do you remember what plates” Jerome Eisenberg, Fred Beaudette deposition, Schatz v. Waksman, Superior Court of New Jersey, Chancery Division, Docket C-1261-49, September 26, 1950, 223.
160 “maybe fifty” Doris Jones deposition, Schatz v. Waksman, Superior Court of New Jersey, Chancery Division, Docket C-1261-49, September 26, 1950, 446.
161 “get at the true facts” Doris Jones to Albert Schatz, undated, 1950, AS.
18. The Settlement
164 close scrutiny Russell Watson and Dudley Watson, memo, meeting of the Rutgers Board of Trustees, December 15, 1950, 1–5, SAW, box 14, 7.
165 redistribution of the royalties Memorandum of Proposed Terms of Settlement of Schatz v. Waksman and Rutgers Research and Endowment Foundation Discussed by Russell E. Watson and Messrs. Eisenberg and Libert, December 19, 1950, SAW, box 14, 7.
166 “role of Maecenas” Hubert Lechevalier, “The Search for Antibiotics at Rutgers University,” in The History of Antibiotics: A Symposium, ed. John Parascandola (Madison, WI: American Institute of the History of Pharmacy, 1980), 119.
166 “an excellent one” Judge Thomas Schettino, statement by the court, Schatz v. Waksman, Superior Court of New Jersey, Docket C-1261-49, December 29, 1950.
167 “a matter of public record” Robert Clothier, “Statement” on the settlement, December 29, 1950, in January–February 1951 Faculty Newsletter, Rutgers University.
167 “long-winded explanations” “He Finally Gets Credit,” Editor’s Opinion, Newark Star-Ledger, December 30, 1950.
167 “influenced by the fact” “Dr. Schatz Wins 3% of Royalty; Named Co-Finder of Streptomycin,” New York Times, December 30, 1950.
169 “well hushed-up” Doris Jones to Albert Schatz, January 11, 1951, MW.
169 “faithful assistance” Selman Waksman to Doris Jones, January 5, 1951, MW.
170 “not unmindful of the fact” Robert Starkey to Selman Waksman, January 8, 1951, SAW, box 14, 7.
170 “no direct claim” Boyd Woodruff to Selman Waksman, January 1, 1951, SAW, box 14, 7.
170 “best years of my life” Dale Harris to Selman Waksman, January 10, 1951, SAW, box 14, 7.
&nb
sp; 170 “utterly surprised, even amazed” Corwin Hinshaw to Selman Waksman, January 2, 1951, SAW, box 14, 7.
170 declined to accept William Feldman to Selman Waksman, February 13, 1951, SAW, box 14, 7.
171 “to refuse the small royalty” Selman Waksman to William Feldman, February 19, 1951, SAW, box 14, 7.
171 “I am sorry” Selman Waksman to Walton Geiger, February 19, 1951, SAW, box 14, 7.
171 “in the hope that” Russell Watson to Selman Waksman, February 8, 1951, SAW, box 14, 7.
PART IV: THE PRIZE
19. The Road to Stockholm
175 almost being fired Raoul Tunley, “He Turned His Back on a Million Dollars,” The American Magazine, March 1952, 21.
175 “biggest hoax” Selman Waksman, “Statement Made by Dr. S. A. Waksman Pertaining to His Connections as Consultant with Industrial Organizations and Various Scientific Institutions,” undated, LOC, box 1.
176 seventh year in a row Nobelprize.org, Nomination Database for the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1901–1953, accessed at http://www.nobel prize.org/nobel_prizes/nomination/.
178 deserved a prize J. P. Strombeck,” “Betankande Angaende, Selman Abraham Waksman,” Nobel Archives, 1952, Ard. 3:16, AS personal archive.
178 a more difficult task Einar Hammersten, “Betankande Angaende, Elizabeth Bugie, Karl Folkers, Albert Schatz, Selman Abraham Waksman, och Oscar Wintersteiner,” Nobel Archives, 1952, Ard. III: 4, AS personal archive.
179 “association of steps” taken H. Boyd Woodruff, deposition, Schatz v. Waksman, Superior Court of New Jersey, Chancery Division, Docket C-1261-49, July 12, 1950, 271.
179 “only scientific publications” Professor Hilding Bergstrand, president of the Nobel Committee for Physiology or Medicine, told the Swedish media that the award to Dr. Waksman had been made solely on the basis of scientific publications and that his committee had been satisfied with the papers it had received. “I must, however, point out,” said Bergstrand, “that when we pick Nobel Prize winners we do not take into account legal proceedings. We consider exclusively scientific publications concerning the work of and by prospective candidates.” See “Student fann streptomycinet tillsammans med Waksman” [Student Found Streptomycin Together with Waksman], Goteborgs Handels-Och Sjofarts-Tidning, October 25, 1952.