On July 3, the General Hunter captured the Cayahoga. Hull’s papers were immediately sent to Brock who thus learned Hull’s orders and the size of his army. The British general skillfully used that knowledge to his advantage.
Two days after the capture, Hull reached Detroit, which was a village of eight hundred people surrounded by stout wooden walls four metres high. Behind it stood a fort with strong walls, cannons, and a garrison of about one hundred. Every day more and more Michigan militiamen arrived. There could be no doubt that Hull’s force and position were much stronger than those of the British who had about three hundred regulars, eight hundred militia from Kent and Essex counties, and perhaps three hundred Indians.
The war truly began on July 12 when Hull crossed the river and occupied Sandwich, thus launching the first invasion of Canada. The men camped on Colonel Jean Baptiste Baby’s farm and Hull moved into the Colonel’s “beautiful mansion.”1
Hull planned to capture Fort Malden before advancing further east. He did not move against the fort immediately, however, for two reasons: he expected he would have to use cannons and was waiting until wheeled carriages were made; and he was hoping that the Canadian militia would return home or come over to his side. To discourage them from fighting he sent out a proclamation:
Inhabitants of Canadas! . . . The army under my command has invaded your country. . . . To the peaceable, unoffending inhabitants, it brings neither danger nor difficulty. . . . I come to protect, not to injure you. . . . In the name of my country, and by the authority of my government, I promise protection to your persons, property, and rights. Remain at your homes . . . raise not your hands against your brethren. . . . The United States offer you peace, liberty and security. Your choice lies between these and war, slavery and destruction.2
He added that his force was strong enough to conquer the province and warned that anyone fighting alongside the Indians against his army would be killed. He also sent agents to tell the Grand River Indians they would be left alone if they remained neutral.
Many Canadian militiamen did go home, and at least sixty deserted to the American army. By July 15, St. George found that half his militia had left and he did not think the remainder would be reliable. Chief Norton could promise only forty to fifty warriors from the Grand River, for most of the Six Nations remained neutral.
Hull and his army were nonetheless in more danger than they realized. Upper Canada’s defences were in strong hands.
THE CAPTURE OF MICHILIMACKINAC AND ITS CONSEQUENCES
Far to the north, at St. Joseph, Captain Roberts had only forty-five soldiers, whereas Lieutenant Porter Hanks at Michilimackinac had sixty-one regulars in a sturdier fort. But Roberts knew that Brock expected him to act vigorously and what defence was more effective than an unexpected attack?
The North West Company fur traders were very willing to help him. The company provided a ship and 180 Canadian voyageurs whom Roberts took along with his soldiers and about four hundred Indians. His men landed on Michilimackinac Island at 3 a.m. on July 17. Dragging a small cannon, they climbed a hill overlooking the fort and about two hours before noon, Roberts called upon the Americans to surrender. Hanks gave up without a fight. His position was hopeless, and he feared that if he lost the battle, the Indians might kill everyone in the fort. This American fear of Indians killing prisoners would again and again affect the course of battles. It increased the effectiveness of the Indians as British allies and decreased American desire to fight.
This small victory had great consequences. Hull received the distressing news at Sandwich on August 2. That same day, Wyandot Indians who lived near Detroit crossed the river to join the British. Robert’s success was bearing fruit quickly by gaining the British many allies among Indians in the Michigan Territory.
William Hull was a civilian who had last seen military service in the American Revolution thirty years earlier. He had not held high rank then and had been appointed to lead the North Western Army because of his status as governor of the Michigan Territory, not because of military ability. He did not want the appointment and never showed the drive of his British opponents.
Before Michilimackinac, Hull had sent raiding parties into Upper Canada and his men had clashed with the British along the Canard River south of Sandwich. Now the whole position had changed. Hull wrote to the governors of Ohio and Kentucky asking for reinforcements, and to the Secretary of War in Washington expressing his fears that masses of Indians would attack Detroit. He dispatched the letters under guard of a two-hundred-man force that he was sending to escort a supply column from Ohio. At Brownstown, Indians led by Tecumseh ambushed the Americans, who fled back to Detroit. This attack increased Hull’s fears. Even more important, his letters were captured and sent to Brock.
Brock had been busy ever since he had learned of the declaration of war. He instructed the militia along the St. Lawrence to be ready to meet an attack. He called out the flank companies of the Lincoln militia to reinforce the 41st Regiment along the Niagara River. He did not fear an American attack there at this time, but he wanted to show both Americans and Canadians that the province would be defended.
About eight hundred militiamen turned out and Brock put most of them on guard duty along the Niagara. But they soon became concerned about getting in the harvest, and by mid-July, Brock was forced to allow half of them to return to their farms.
As the bad news of Hull’s invasion and of militia desertions came from the West, Brock began to fear that nothing could stop Hull from marching eastward. What could be done, he did. He sent Colonel Henry Procter to take command at Amherstburg and issued a proclamation of his own, defending British rule in Canada and warning that American control would bring oppression. For the moment, he could not take more positive action such as going to Amherstburg himself because he was required to meet the legislature in York.
Brock felt terribly frustrated by being tied down with politics at York, but instead of giving way to despair, he acted decisively and positively. His attitude was best summed up by his own comment: “Most of the people have lost all confidence — I however speak loud and look big.”3
At last came the encouraging news: Roberts had captured Michilimackinac. As soon as Brock ended the meeting of the legislature, he hurried to the Grand River. On August 7, he talked to a council of the Indians who promised to send warriors to help him. By evening, he reached Port Dover, on Lake Erie, where militia and regulars were gathering. The next day, most of the force embarked in small boats for Amherstburg.
They had over three hundred kilometres to travel on a lake where storms could blow up quickly. Fierce rain and wind almost stopped their progress but Brock pushed on day and night until they reached Amherstburg late on the thirteenth. When General Hull heard that Brock was on his way, he took most of his army back across the river to Detroit. On August 9, he sent another force, larger this time, to escort the supply train. They were ambushed near the village of Maguaga by regulars, militia, and Indians under Tecumseh. The Americans drove off the attackers, but instead of pushing on to meet the supply column, they camped where they were. After a night spent in pouring rain without tents, they returned to Detroit. More than ever, Hull feared enemies were all around him. He recalled the rest of his troops from Upper Canada, thus ending the first American invasion.
BROCK AND TECUMSEH WIN A GREAT VICTORY
Soon after arriving at Amherstburg, Brock met Tecumseh. Each impressed the other and a real friendship seems to have been born. There is a legend that Tecumseh turned to his followers and said of Brock, “This is a man.”4 Brock later wrote, “He who attracted most my attention was a Shawnee chief, Tecumseh . . . a more sagacious or a more gallant warrior does not I believe exist. He was the admiration of everyone who conversed with him.”5 (Ironically, the two most courageous leaders in this war would both be killed in defence of their cause.)
The next day, Brock held a conference with his officers, Tecumseh, and other Indian chiefs, at which he outlined
his plan to attack Detroit. Colonel Procter opposed it, thinking the risk too great. Having read the captured letters, however, Brock knew the state of Hull’s mind. He concluded that the Americans had lost confidence in their general and would not be eager to fight. Tecumseh supported Brock’s plan.
Brock sent a demand to Hull for immediate surrender. Knowing the American fear of Indians, he warned that the warriors might get out of control in a fight. Hull rejected the demand.
British cannons at Sandwich began filing at Detroit and the Americans shot back, but neither side did much damage. During the night of August 15, about six hundred Indians crossed the river. Early the next morning, Brock took 330 regulars and four hundred militia across. The guns of the Queen Charlotte and the General Hunter covered the landing, but Hull had left the river bank unguarded.
Brock marched his little army towards the fort. Some of his militia were dressed in soldiers’ tunics, which made Hull think he faced mostly regulars. As the British advanced, they could see American gunners standing by their cannons awaiting the order to fire. Brock’s force was in the open and cannon fire would have shredded their ranks. Brock seemed to have put his force in a very dangerous position.
Hull thought himself in even greater danger. During the morning, British shells had landed in the fort killing several men, and the Americans had seen what appeared to be two to three thousand Indians crossing an opening in the woods; in fact, Tecumseh had cleverly marched the same group of warriors through the clearing three times. The American commander was not at the wall giving orders or vigorously organizing the defence; physically sick and mentally disordered, he simply sat on an old tent in a corner of the fort chewing tobacco.6
Suddenly, Brock and his men saw a white flag go up. They were amazed. Without consulting his officers, Hull had decided to surrender. The American general gave up everything in his command: the fort, its garrison, and even the troops outside. An American army of almost 2,200 men (nearly 600 of them regulars), along with 35 cannons, 2,500 muskets, 500 rifles, ammunition, and the brig Adams were taken. Brock proclaimed British rule over the entire Michigan Territory. Soon afterwards, British regulars and militia marched south and took possession of American supplies and destroyed blockhouses as far south as the Maumee (Miami) River.
Brock issued a general order praising the regulars and militia while also recognizing the important role of Tecumseh and the Indians. Together, these two men had accomplished a great victory, but they would never see each other again.
American strategy in the West lay in ruins. The Americans had lost all posts north of the Maumee, their main army in the region, and any hope of influencing the Indians. The weapons and supplies taken would be of great help in the defence of Upper Canada.
On the Canadian side morale soared, for people began to believe that the province could be defended and that American conquest was not going to be so easy after all. Michael Smith, a recent American immigrant who had travelled extensively in Upper Canada while compiling information for a book about the colony, wrote at the time,
After this event, the people of Upper Canada became fearful of disobeying the government . . . and the friends of the United States were discouraged and those of the King encouraged. The army now became respectable, and a dread fell on those who had opposed the government. The people now saw that it was as much as their property and lives were worth to disobey orders, and now what they had been compelled to do, after a while they did from choice.7
The government no longer had to tolerate a pro-American attitude among the people and could begin to insist that every man perform militia duty when called upon. Also affected were the Grand River Indians. Norton and his warriors had not played a large role at Detroit. Now the Six Nations began to drop their policy of neutrality and actively support the government, with very important consequences.
General Hull was to face a court martial a year and a half later. The court dropped the charge of treason but found him guilty of cowardice and neglect of duty. He escaped the sentence of execution by firing squad because President Madison pardoned him on the grounds of his Revolutionary War service.
BROCK ON THE NIAGARA FRONTIER
Brock hurried back to the Niagara frontier, perhaps fearful of what he might find. The news was good. Prevost had sent another general officer, Major-General Roger H. Sheaffe, to assist him along with more regulars, including the 49th. With the province’s defences thus strengthened, Brock wanted more than ever to strike at the Americans. In particular, he wanted to attack Sackets Harbor in order to prevent the creation there of an effective American naval force on Lake Ontario. His plans were blocked by a cease-fire and by Prevost’s orders.
Prevost had proposed a cease-fire when he heard that Britain had repealed the Orders in Council and wanted to stop the fighting. Major-General Henry Dearborn, the American commander for the area from Montreal to the Niagara River, readily agreed because he was far from ready to launch an invasion.
Henry Dearborn was another example of a politician appointed to military command because of his political prominence rather than his military talents. As a military leader, he acted slowly and was easily discouraged. Perhaps he was not as bad as Hull, but he achieved so little that Madison would finally dismiss him in July 1813.
The truce, which did not cover Hull’s army, took effect on August 9. President Madison, however, refused to agree to it with the result that it terminated on September 4. Still, Dearborn was not ready to attack Canada.
When the cease-fire ended, Brock expected the Americans, who were growing in number every day, would quickly attack on the Niagara frontier. But he did not realize the extent of the problems in the enemy’s camp, such as widespread sickness among the men and a severe shortage of food and weapons. The militia, untrained and discontented, wanted only to return to their farms while regular officers would not cooperate with militia commanders. Disunity at higher levels worked to Canada’s advantage. Peter B. Porter, a prominent New York politician and militia commander, complained bitterly to Secretary of War Eustis, “For God’s sake . . . arouse and put forth the energies of the nation. The poor but patriotic citizens of Ohio and the frontiers of New York are . . . alone called out because their march to the frontier is shorter, and therefore cheaper, while the rich inhabitants of Pennsylvania are lolling in security and ease.”8
Field officer, 49th Regiment.
[Courtesy of Parks Canada Service.]
Even though Brock was made aware of the American difficulties from deserters, he did not relax. He called up more militia to patrol the river. He organized a system of beacons to send messages across the peninsula from lake to lake. The weapons captured at Detroit were distributed and the cannons mounted along the river. Niagara Dragoons were told to be ready at a moment’s notice to carry messages. Each detachment of troops had orders to march to the aid of the others if they received a call for help. In short, these small forces were being organized in a professional way to provide effective defence.
THE BATTLE OF QUEENSTON HEIGHTS
By early October, Brock had fewer than 1,000 regulars, about 600 militia, and a reserve of perhaps 600 militia and Indians. American forces opposite numbered about 6,000, over half of them regulars. They had also been joined by over 100 Seneca Indians from New York State who had decided to abandon neutrality. Another 2,000 Pennsylvania militia were on their way. The commander of the Niagara frontier, General Stephen Van Rensselaer, now had no good reasons for delaying an attack.
Van Rensselaer’s plan was to cross the Niagara River from Lewiston and capture the village of Queenston, which lay at the base of the Niagara Escarpment. Here, although the current was swift and the banks high, the river was narrow. Van Rensselaer wanted to gain control of the heights because this would cut the middle of Brock’s defensive line. Queenston seemed vulnerable because, he knew, there were few troops there as Brock had concentrated forces at Fort George, Chippawa, and Fort Erie. Brigadier-General Alexander Smyth, who command
ed 1,650 regulars at Buffalo, thought the plan foolish. He wanted to cross above the Falls, where the river was wider but calmer and its banks lower. Not getting his way, Smyth simply refused to co-operate with Van Rensselaer.
The omens for success were not good and they worsened on the night of October 10. The boats for the crossing were assembled opposite Queenston but the oars for them had to be brought upriver and the boat carrying them somehow ended up on the Canadian shore, whereupon the American officer in charge promptly disappeared! Brock knew of this abortive attempt but still thought the real attack would be against the extreme ends of his line, Fort George or Fort Erie.
The American invasion finally began about 4 a.m. on October 13. Three hundred militia under Colonel Solomon Van Rensselaer (the general’s cousin) and three hundred regulars under Lieutenant-Colonel John Chrystie quietly climbed into boats to be rowed across the river.
Re-enactors dressed as Indian warriors at Fort George, July 10, 1999.
[Courtesy of the author.]
A re-enactor as a member of The Corps of Artificers (The Coloured Corps). [Courtesy of the author.]
This battle, like so many others, was not fought as the commanders on each side expected or planned. Three of the boats were caught by the current and carried downstream to the Canadian shore, their men becoming the first prisoners of the day. Other boats turned back. Not all the original force got across the river, but enough did to establish a small beachhead.
As the Americans landed and tried to climb up the steep river bank, they were shot at by the troops of the 49th and 2nd York Militia flank company. They could not advance up the steep and slippery slope in the face of this fire but neither could the defenders drive them away from the shelter of the bank. Casualties mounted, and they included Colonel Van Rensselaer who returned wounded to the United States, leaving Captain John E. Wool in command.
The War of 1812 Page 4