by Gerard Colby
▪ George D. Woods, former chairman of First Boston Corporation, International Finance Corporation, and the World Bank, which would soon underwrite bank loans to finance the Trans-Amazon Highway’s penetration of Brazil’s rain forest. A member of the Rockefeller Foundations board of trustees, Woods was also a director of the New York Times and the Kaiser Industries holding company, whose Kaiser Aluminum owned nine subsidiaries in Brazil, including mines in the Brazilian Amazon.
▪ W. Kenneth Riland, Nelson’s personal physician and chief physician of the U.S. Steel Corporation, which had been mining in Brazil since the 1920s. U.S. Steel owned eight subsidiaries in Brazil and shares in three joint ventures. In 1967, it had discovered one of the world’s largest lodes of high-grade iron ore in the Amazon jungle in the state of Pará at the Serra dos Carajás, ancestral home of the Xikrín Indians.
▪ Augustine R. Marusi, formerly head of São Paulo’s Alba corporation and the chairman of Borden, the chemical firm controlled by the family of SIL ally Sam Milbank.
▪ Clark Reynolds, Stanford University food economist, who was then conducting a study of financial growth in Brazil, Colombia, Argentina, and Mexico.
Others were veterans of Nelson’s CIAA days, including:
▪ Victor Borella, the CIAA’s labor expert, formerly of Rockefeller Center and a member of Rockefeller’s staff.
▪ Monroe Wheeler, CIAA’s cultural publications chief and former director of exhibitions and publications. Wheeler was a trustee of the Museum of Modern Art (which Nelson had called “Mother’s Museum” while chairing the board).
▪ George Beebe, who had covered Latin America for the Miami Herald since the days when Nelson Rockefeller was head of CIAA and Roosevelt’s assistant secretary of state for Latin America; Beebe was now the Herald’s senior managing editor and a director of the Inter-American Press Association, a CIA conduit.
▪ Kenneth Holland, former CIAA education director and now president of the Institute of International Relations, the CIA conduit that administered the Fulbright Scholarship and student exchanges from its offices at U.N. Plaza. Holland had served on the OAS Task Force on Education and was considered well informed on student affairs during the tumultuous 1960s.
And then there were the counterinsurgency experts from economic and military fields:
▪ General Robert Porter, former chief of the Southern Command. Twice decorated by the Brazilian military junta, Porter had overseen U.S. military operations against Che Guevara in Bolivia.
▪ Leroy S. Wehrle, former chief of AID operations in Laos and Vietnam; with the Harvard Development Center and a member of John 3rd’s Asia Society.
▪ David Bronheim, AID’s former deputy U.S. coordinator of the Alliance for Progress and now director of the Rockefeller-backed Center for Inter-American Relations.
APPENDIX B
MEMBERS OF THE ROCKEFELLER COMMISSION ON CIA ABUSES (1975)
▪ C. Douglas Dillon, Nelson Rockefeller’s confidant and President Kennedy’s treasury secretary. As an undersecretary of state in the Eisenhower administration, Dillon had participated in deliberations over the fate of Cuba’s Fidel Castro and the Congo’s Patrice Lumumba, both marked for assassination by the CIA. In 1971 he was named chairman of the Rockefeller Foundation board of trustees; he was already a director of the Institute of International Education, which had received CIA funds.
▪ General Lyman Lemnitzer, former chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, who was active in planning the Bay of Pigs invasion and supported the CIA’s desire for direct U.S. military intervention, only to be overruled by Kennedy.
▪ Lane Kirkland, the Georgetown University School of Foreign Service graduate who became AFL-CIO’s top researcher and executive assistant to its president, George Meany, during the Kennedy-Johnson years. At that time, he was a director and strong supporter of the CIA-funded American Institute for Free Labor Development, which operated mostly in Latin America in cooperation with corporate leaders. When the CIA was exposed using labor and student unions and private foundations, Kirkland served on Johnson’s commission to find some means of continuing the CIA’s pet projects without their having to bear the CIA stigma. The commission simply recommended substituting overt government and private funding of the same projects that the CIA covertly had backed. AFL-CIO’s secretary-treasurer at the time of the Rockefeller Commission on CIA Abuses, Kirkland was also a member of Nelson Rockefeller’s Commission on Critical Choices.
▪ John T. Connor, director of David Rockefeller’s Chase Manhattan Bank, former commerce secretary in the Johnson administration, and president of Allied Chemical, in which the Rockefellers held $52 million in stock.
▪ Erwin Griswold, former Harvard Law School dean and until recently the Johnson-appointed U.S. solicitor general. In March 1971, he argued on behalf of the Nixon administration that publication by the New York Times of the Pentagon Papers was a threat to Nixon’s presidential powers over foreign affairs. In March 1972, he argued before the Supreme Court that the U.S. Army’s surveillance of citizens opposing the Vietnam War violated neither federal law nor those citizens’ First Amendment rights to freedom of assembly or speech. He lost both cases.
▪ Edgar F. Shannon, Jr., president of the University of Virginia. Shannon had no experience with the CIA. In 1975, he would join the board of the Rockefellers’ prestigious Colonial Williamsburg Foundation.
▪ Ronald Reagan, former actor and, until recently, governor of California. Reagan’s appointment was seen by many as Ford’s attempt to placate the right wing of his party. Reagan had no experience with the CIA, and attended few of the commission’s sessions
NOTES
INTRODUCTION
1. Pereira’s statements to Father Edgar Smith were first reported in Norman Lewis, “Genocide: From Fire and Sword to Arsenic and Bullets—Civilization Has Sent Six Million Indians to Extinction,” Sunday Times (London), February 23, 1969.
2. For the estimate of 200,000 Indians, see Adrian Cowell, London Observer, June 20, 1971, p. 20, quoting Brazilian anthropologist Paulo Duarte; and Shelton H. Davis, Victims of the Miracle (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977), p. 5. For the lower estimate of below 100,000, see Darcy Ribeiro, “Culturas e Língues Indígenas do Brasil,” Educação e Ciências Sociales, Vol. 2, No. 6 (Rio de Janeiro: Brazilian Center of Educational Research, 1957); an English translation, “Indigenous Cultures and Languages in Brazil,” can be found in Indians of Brazil in the Twentieth Century, ed. Janice H. Hopper (Washington, D.C.: Institute for Cross Cultural Research, 1967), pp. 79–160. In 1971 Duarte estimated there were fewer than 80,000 Indians surviving in Brazil; by his figures, some 120,000 had died. Others put the number of survivors at fewer than 50,000; using Ribeiro’s 1957 figure, that would mean some 50,000 men, women, and children had died. In either case, for such a fate to have occurred so consistently in such a short period of time throughout an area as vast as the Brazilian Amazon, the result could have come only from a cause national in scope and power over the nation’s development: the Brazilian military regime’s development policy, officially titled “Operation Amazon” in 1965. Under international law, those who put into effect a policy that deliberately and systematically results in the destruction of a race, nation, or ethnic group are guilty of genocide.
3. Lewis, “Genocide.”
4. Ibid.
5. Atlas magazine (London), January 1970.
6. Authors’ interview with William Cameron Townsend, Waxhaw, N.C., September 1977.
7. Lewis, “Genocide.”
8. Philip Agee, Inside the Company (Harmondsworth, Eng.: Penguin, 1975), p. 612; Victor Marchetti and John Marks, The CIA and the Cult of Intelligence (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1974), p. 123.
9. Major Olimpio Alver Machado, “Indian Guard Trained in Brazil,” International Policy Academy Review, October 1970, pp. 9, 14.
10. Jornal do Brasil, August 27, 1972; see also Ben Munetar, “Agent Exposes Secret Concentration Camp in Crenaque, Brazil,” Wassaja, N
ovember 1973.
11. Veja magazine, May 31, 1972, p. 21.
12. Max G. White (U.S. Geological Survey), “Probing the Unknown Amazon Basin—A Roundup of 21 Mineral Exploration Programs in Brazil,” Engineering and Mining Journal, May 1973, pp. 72–76; and “Project Radam Maps the Unknown in Brazil,” Engineering and Mining Journal, November 1975, pp. 165–68.
1: THE BAPTIST BURDEN
1. B. J. Matteson to John D. Rockefeller, Jr., September 11, 1924, Western Trip—1924 file, Papers of John D. Rockefeller, Jr., Rockefeller Family Archives, Rockefeller Archive Center, Tarrytown, New York.
2. Quoted in Joe Alex Morris, Nelson Rockefeller (New York: Harper & Bros., 1960), p. 21.
3. See correspondence of August 23, 1893, of Frank Rockefeller to George D. Rogers, noting that all his lands “in Comanche and Kiowa Counties [Kansas]” had been deeded to John D. Rockefeller. Papers of John D. Rockefeller, Sr., Correspondence—1879–1894 Series, Rockefeller, Frank—Personal and Ranch No. 2 folder, Rockefeller Family Archives, Rockefeller Archive Center. See also Rockefeller, Frank—Personal and Ranch No. 1 folder and Box 82, Folders 609 and 610, Business Investments (1888–1891) series; New York Times, April 3, 1910, p. 8; and JDR Gifts (1913–1949) folder in the Rockefeller Foundation Archives for extensive documentation of the Rockefeller’s investments in railroad stocks and bonds.
4. A. A. Bacone to J. D. Rockefeller, April 14, 1883, Papers of J. D. Rockefeller, Sr.—Office Correspondence, Bacone School file, Box 2, Folder 15, Rockefeller Archive Center. Rockefeller donations to Bacone totaled $10,500.
5. A millenarian who believed the spreading of Bible reading could hasten the Second Coming of the Lord and the prophesied Millennial Kingdom of a 1,000-year peace, Moody warned, “I say to the rich men of Chicago, their money will not be worth much if communism and infidelity sweep the land.” See William G. McLaughlin, Modern Revivalism (New York: Ronald Press, 1959), p. 269.
6. References to Rockefeller’s contributions to a Baptist mission railroad car working the Lake Superior region are located in the Duluth Mesabe & Northern Railway files, Papers of John D. Rockefeller, Sr., Box 1, Folder 1, Rockefeller Family Archives, Rockefeller Archive Center.
7. A. A. Bacone to J. D. Rockefeller, December 1890, Bacone file, Papers of John D. Rockefeller, Sr., in ibid.
8. James R. Thorpe to Robert W. Gumbel, May 8, 1926, Western Trip—1926 file, Papers of John D. Rockefeller, Jr., in ibid. Thorpe informed Gumbel that “it is claimed there are immensely valuable coal reserves on 200,000 acres.”
9. Quoted in Raymond B. Fosdick, John D. Rockefeller, Jr.: A Portrait (New York: Harper & Bros., 1956), p. 167.
10. J. D. Rockefeller, Jr., Diary of Western Trip—Summer of 1924, Entry for July 16, 1924, Western Trip—1924 file, Rockefeller Family Archives, Rockefeller Archive Center.
11. Televised interview of Nelson Rockefeller by David Frost, New York, July 20, 1971.
2: THE FUNDAMENTALIST CONTROVERSY
1. “Dr. Stratton Assails John D. Jr. for His Recent Praise of the Religion of Today,” New York Times, December 2, 1924, p. 16.
2. Allan Nevins, ed., “The Memoirs of Frederick T. Gates,” American Heritage (April 1955), p. 70.
3. J. D. Rockefeller—Cutler correspondence, 1917–1923, Appendix CC, Office of the Messrs. Rockefeller—OMR Series John D. Rockefeller, Sr., 1918–1937, Box 37, Folder 286, Rockefeller Family Archives, Rockefeller Archive Center, Tarrytown, New York.
4. William B. Riley, “Corporate Control: The Peril of Christian Education,” in Inspiration or Evolution? (Cleveland: Union Gospel Press, 1926).
5. Gerald T. White, Formative Years in the Far West (New York: Appleton, 1962), p. 298.
6. Raymond B. Fosdick, John D. Rockefeller, Jr.: A Portrait (New York: Harper & Bros., 1956), p. 83.
7. John D. Rockefeller to Starr Murphy, December 9, 1920; JDR Gifts—December 15, 1920 (for Medical Education—1920–21), General Education Board, Rockefeller Boards, Office of the Messrs. Rockefeller, Rockefeller Archive Center.
8. John D. Rockefeller, Jr., to John D. Rockefeller, Sr., July 28, 1921, in ibid.
9. John D. Rockefeller, Sr, to John D. Rockefeller, Jr., August 1, 1921, in ibid.
10. Quoted in Peter Collier and David Horowitz, The Rockefellers (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1976), p. 133.
11. Wolf Plume and Black Bull to John D. Rockefeller, Jr., April 16, 1926, Western Trip—1924 file, Papers of John D. Rockefeller, Jr., Rockefeller Family Archives, Rockefeller Archive Center.
12. Joe Alex Morris, Nelson Rockefeller (New York: Harper & Bros., 1960), p. 77.
13. John D. Rockefeller, Jr., to William G. Nelson, May 6, 1926, Western Trip—1924 file, Office of the Messrs. Rockefeller, Papers of John D. Rockefeller, Jr.—Personal Series, Rockefeller Family Archives, Rockefeller Archive Center.
14. William G. Nelson, Blackfeet Agency, U.S. Indian Field Service, to John D. Rockefeller, Jr., June 7, 1926, in ibid.
15. Harry M. Ralston to John D. Rockefeller, April 26, 1926, in ibid.
16. Memorandum dictated by Kenneth Chorley January 4, 1924, in ibid.
17. Charles L. White to Raymond Fosdick, January 11, 1924, in ibid.
18. Herbert Welsh to Kenneth Chorley, November 19, 1924, in ibid.
19. John Collier to Raymond Fosdick, July 30, 1924, American Indian Defense Association—1923–1924 file, 169 TM, in ibid.
20. John Collier, Indians of the Americas (New York: New American Library, 1947), p. 134.
21. Quoted in Kenneth R. Philp, John Collier’s Crusade for Indian Reform: 1920–1954 (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1977), pp. 80, 81.
22. See Herbert Welsh to Kenneth Chorley, November 19, 1924, and John Collier to Raymond B. Fosdick, July 30, 1924, Indian Rights Association file, 169 IN, Office of the Messrs. Rockefeller, Papers of John D. Rockefeller, Jr.—Personal Series, Rockefeller Family Archives, Rockefeller Archive Center.
3: RETHINKING MISSIONS
1. Joe Alex Morris, Nelson Rockefeller (New York: Harper & Bros., 1960), p. 80.
2. Quoted in ibid., p. 59.
3. Quoted in ibid., p. 50.
4. Quoted in Peter Collier and David Horowitz, The Rockefellers (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1976), pp. 104–5.
5. Gates’s letter to John D. Rockefeller was printed in the Boston Herald, April 17, 1905.
6. Ibid.
7. Dorothy Berg, American Policy and the Chinese Revolution, 1925–28 (New York: Macmillan, 1947), p. 68.
8. Ibid.
9. Statistics from William A. Brown, “The Protestant Rural Movement in China, 1920–37,” in American Missionaries in China (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1966).
10. E. I. Vaughn to Wickliffe Rose, December 3, 1920. Memorandum Part V—“General Impression of Present Conditions,” Record Group (hereafter RG) II, 1, 319, Guatemala, Folder 183, Records of International Health Board, Rockefeller Foundation Archives, Rockefeller Archive Center, Tarrytown, New York.
11. Interchurch World Bulletin of North America, April 1920.
12. Ibid.
13. Papers of John D. Rockefeller, Jr., Religious Interests, ICM—Institute on Social and Religious Surveys, Folder 329, Rockefeller Archive Center.
14. “Proceedings of the Meeting of the Layman’s Foreign Mission Inquiry,” Hotel Roosevelt, 1932.
15. Quoted in Raymond B. Fosdick, John D. Rockefeller, Jr.: A Portrait (New York: Harper & Bros., 1956), p. 219.
16. Ibid.
4: THE APOSTOLIC VISION
1. Quoted in Ethel E. Wallis and Mary A. Bennett, Two Thousand Tongues to Go (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1966), p. 48.
2. Quoted in James C. Hefley and Marti Hefley, Uncle Cam (Waco, Tex.: Word Books, 1974), p. 66.
3. Quoted in ibid., p. 38.
4. Quoted in Wallis and Bennett, Two Thousand Tongues, p. 49.
5. Central American Bulletin, September 15, 1920, pp. 10–11.
6. Ibid., January 15, 1921, pp. 12–14.
7. S
ee William H. McNeill, Plagues and Peoples (Garden City, N.Y.: Anchor Books, 1978).
8. Wallis and Bennett, Two Thousand Tongues, p. 48.
9. See New York Times, September 7, 1926, p. 20, and January 16, 1927, p. 8. The Dargue flight was also a direct response to competition by German companies in Latin America, particularly Scadta in Colombia, which wanted to extend its lines between South America and the United States.
10. Quoted in Hefley and Hefley, Uncle Cam, p. 69.
11. Quoted in ibid.
12. David Stoll, Fishers of Men or Founders of Empires? The Wycliffe Bible Translators in Latin America (London: Zed Press, 1982), p. 39. Stoll quotes a village elder who recalled the dispute.
13. Hefley and Hefley, Uncle Cam, p. 70.
14. Colonel J. White to Wickliffe Rose, August 11, 1918, Box 33, Yellow Fever Commission, Records of the International Health Board, Rockefeller Foundation Archives, Rockefeller Archive Center, Tarrytown, New York.
15. Quoted in Hefley and Hefley, Uncle Cam, pp. 71–72.
16. Quoted in ibid., p. 72.
17. Quoted in ibid., p. 74.
18. Quoted in Hugh Steven, ed., A Thousand Trails (White Rock, British Columbia: CREDO Publishing Corp., 1984), p. 216.
19. Quoted in Hefley and Hefley, Uncle Cam, p. 64.
20. Quoted in ibid., pp. 75–76.
21. Ibid.
5: THE RITES OF POLITICAL PASSAGE
1. Quoted in Joe Alex Morris, Nelson Rockefeller (New York: Harper & Bros., 1960), p. 90.
2. Quoted in Robert Grant Irving, Indian Summer: Lutyens, Baker, and Imperial Delhi (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1981), p. 351.
3. Quoted in Morris, Nelson Rockefeller, p. 91.
4. Quoted in ibid., p. 87.
5. Quoted in ibid.
6. Quoted in ibid.
7. Geoffrey Hellman, “Best Neighbor,” The New Yorker, April 18, 1942.
8. Judith Brown, Gandhi and Civil Disobedience (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977), p. 386.