by Gerard Colby
9. Quoted in Morris, Nelson Rockefeller, p. 89.
10. Quoted in ibid., p. 90.
11. Quoted in Hellman, “Best Neighbor.”
12. Paraphrase of Paine’s remarks by Josephus Daniels in Shirt-Sleeve Diplomat (Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press, 1947), p. 444.
13. Quoted in Myer Kutz, Rockefeller Power (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1974), p. 127.
14. Ibid., pp. 126–27.
15. Diego Rivera, My Art, My Life (New York: Citadel Press, 1958), p. 43; see also Bertram Wolfe, The Fabulous Life of Diego Rivera (New York: Stein & Day, 1963), pp. 144, 146–47.
16. New York World Telegram, May 3, 1933.
17. Quoted in Morris, Nelson Rockefeller, p. 102.
18. New York World Telegram, May 12, 1933.
19. Josephus Daniels to Jonathan Daniels, November 28, 1933, Papers of Josephus Daniels (hereafter cited as Daniels Papers), Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.
20. Ibid.
21. Quoted in James C. Hefley and Marti Hefley, Uncle Cam (Waco, Tex.: Word Books, 1974), p. 78.
22. Aarón Sáenz’s career is reviewed in James C. Hefley, Aarón Sáenz: Mexico’s Revolutionary Capitalist (Waco, Tex.: Word Books, 1970).
23. Frank Tannenbaum, Peace by Revolution: An Interpretation of Mexico (New York: Columbia University Press, 1933), p. 179.
24. Ibid., p. 302.
25. Quoted in Hefley and Hefley, Uncle Cam, p. 80.
26. Quoted in ibid., p. 82.
27. William Cameron Townsend, Tolo: The Volcano’s Son (Huntington Beach, Calif.: Wycliffe Bible Translators, 1981), p. 85.
28. See Carey McWilliams, Factories in the Field (Santa Barbara, Calif: Peregrine, 1971).
29. New York Times, June 13, 1935, p. 1; 14, p. 9; 15, p. 1; 16, p3. On Bassols’s earlier removal, see Ramírez to Townsend, June 4, 1934, Papers of William Cameron Townsend, located at Jungle Aviation and Radio Service headquarters, Waxhaw, North Carolina (hereafter cited as Townsend Archives).
30. Hefley and Hefley, Uncle Cam, p. 89.
31. Legters to Townsend, November 14, 1935, Townsend Archives.
32. Kenneth R. Philp, John Collier’s Crusade for Indian Reform: 1920–1954 (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1977), p. 90.
33. Ibid., p. 172.
34. Hefley and Hefley, Uncle Cam, p. 90.
35. Information on Gamio’s career was taken from Juan Comas, The Life and Work of Manuel Gamio: A Posthumous Homage (Mexico City: Anthropology Department, UNAM [National Autonomous University of Mexico], 1956).
36. Adolfo Gilly, La Revolución Interrumpida (Mexico City: Ediciones El Caballito, 1971), p. 291.
37. New York Times, October 7, 1935, p. 34.
38. W. C. Townsend to Ambassador Daniels, December 18, 1935, Townsend Archives.
39. Daniels, Shirt-Sleeve Diplomat, pp. 136, 255–62.
40. James C. Hefley and Hugh Steven, Miracles in Mexico (Chicago: Moody Press, 1972), p. 23.
41. Daniels Papers, Box 664, State Dept. Dispatch (1933–1935), Presidential Trip, December 2–12, 1935.
42. Ethel E. Wallis and Mary A. Bennett, Two Thousand Tongues to Go (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1966), p. 88.
43. William Cameron Townsend and Richard S. Pittman, Remember All the Way (Huntington Beach, Calif.: Wycliffe Bible Translators, 1975), pp. 64–65.
44. Ibid., p. 36.
45. Hefley and Hefley, Uncle Cam, p. 102.
6: GOOD NEIGHBORS MAKE GOOD ALLIES
1. Dallas Morning News, December 8, 1959.
2. Quoted in Russell Lynes, Good Old Modern (New York: Atheneum, 1973), p. 151.
3. Peter Collier and David Horowitz, The Rockefellers (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1976), p. 202. See also Josephus Daniels’s account of Nelson’s visit and interpretation of the Rivera incident in his Shirt sleeve Diplomat (Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press, 1947), pp. 444–46.
4. Quoted in ibid., pp. 202–3.
5. Max Winkler, “The Dollar Abroad,” Information Service 5, Supplement 1 (March 1929), Foreign Policy Associates, New York.
6. Gómez’s relations with Creole are described in Harvey O’Connor, World Crisis in Oil (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1962).
7. Quoted in Joe Alex Morris, Nelson Rockefeller (New York: Harper & Bros., 1960), pp. 111–12.
8. Quoted in ibid., p. 16.
9. Quoted in ibid., p. 114
10. Quoted in ibid., p. 112.
11. Senate Temporary National Economic Committee, 76th Cong. 3rd sess., Investigation of Concentration of Economic Power (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1941).
12. Quoted in Frank Gervasi, The Real Rockefeller (New York: Atheneum, 1964), p. 69.
13. Quoted in Morris, Nelson Rockefeller, p. 115.
14. Quoted in James C. Hefley and Marti Hefley, Uncle Cam (Waco, Tex.: Word Books, 1974), p. 103.
15. Ibid.
16. Josephus Daniels to Franklin Delano Roosevelt, March 22, 1938, President’s Secretary’s File (hereafter PSF)—Mexico, Franklin D. Roosevelt Library.
17. Quoted in O’Connor, World Crisis in Oil, p. 112.
18. Daniels to Franklin Delano Roosevelt, March 29, 1938, Roosevelt Library.
19. Quoted in S. Shepard Jones and Denys P. Myers, eds., Documents on American Foreign Relations, January 1938—June 1939 (Boston: World Peace Foundation, 1939), pp. 123–24.
20. Adolf Berle, Navigating the Rapids (New York: Harcourt, 1973), p. 177.
21. Quoted in Hefley and Hefley, Uncle Cam, p. 107.
22. Lázaro Cárdenas to W. C. Townsend, August 9, 1938, Townsend Archives.
23. W. C. Townsend to Cordell Hull, September 10, 1938, in ibid.
24. Press Conference, January 12, 1940, No. 614-A, President’s Personal File (hereafter PPF) no. IP, Roosevelt Library.
25. Committee on Cooperation, Annual Report, 1929, p. 8.
26. Ibid., p. 5.
27. See Gerard Colby, Du Pont Dynasty: Behind the Nylon Curtain (Secaucus, N.J.: Lyle Stuart, 1984), pp. 330–46.
28. Committee on Cooperation, Annual Report, 1934, p. 2.
7: THE MEXICAN TIGHTROPE
1. Quoted in Joe Alex Morris, Nelson Rockefeller (New York: Harper & Bros., 1960), pp. 118–19.
2. W.C. Townsend, The Truth About Mexico’s Oil (Los Angeles: Inter-American Fellowship, 1940), pp. 4–5.
3. Robert Bottome to N. Rockefeller, March 16, 1940, Compañia de Fomento Venezuela file, Office of the Messrs. Rockefeller, Business Files, Rockefeller Family Archives, Rockefeller Archive Center, Tarrytown, New York.
4. Robert Bottome to Nelson Rockefeller, August 15, 1940, in ibid.
5. Carl Spaeth to Nelson Rockefeller, September 19, 1940, in ibid.
6. See Lloyd C. Gardner, Economic Aspects of New Deal Diplomacy (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1954), pp. 153–68.
7. Ruml to H. Hopkins, December 28, 1938, Papers of Harry Hopkins, Box 97, Ruml file, Franklin D. Roosevelt Library.
8. Cable, Hopkins to Ruml, January 4, 1939, in ibid.
9. Anna Rosenberg to President Franklin D. Roosevelt, March 13, 1939, PPF, in ibid.
10. Quoted in Geoffrey Hellman, “Best Neighbor,” The New Yorker, April 18, 1942.
11. Morris, Nelson Rockefeller, p. 124.
12. Ibid., pp. 129–30.
13. Will Clayton Memoir, Oral History Project, Columbia University, New York City.
14. Townsend, The Truth About Mexico’s Oil, p. 26.
15. Ibid., p. 46.
16. Quoted in Ray Eldon Hiebert, Courtier to the Crowd: The Story of Ivy Lee and the Development of Public Relations (Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press, 1966), pp. 290–91.
17. Quoted in E. David Cronon, Josephus Daniels in Mexico (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1960), p. 235.
18. Townsend, The Truth About Mexico’s Oil, p. 64.
19. Collier’s life is told by Kenneth R. Philp, John Collier’s Crusade for Indian Reform: 1920–1954 (Tucson: University of Ariz
ona Press, 1977).
20. John Collier, Memorandum for Secretary Ickes, May 7, 1936, RG 75—Records of the Bureau of Indian Affairs, National Archives.
21. Quoted in James C. Hefley and Marti Hefley, Uncle Cam (Waco, Tex.: Word Books, 1974), pp. 114–15.
22. Josephus Daniels to Franklin D. Roosevelt, January 31, 1939, PSF—Mexico, PSF—Diplomatic (Box 61), Roosevelt Library.
23. Lázaro Cárdenas to Franklin D. Roosevelt, November 27, 1940, PPF 7214, in ibid.
24. W. C. Townsend to Franklin D. Roosevelt, Pan American Day [April 14], 1940, Townsend Archives.
8: THE COORDINATOR
1. Franklin D. Roosevelt to Nelson Rockefeller, January 30, 1941, RG 229, Box 410, TR-47, U.S. Section of Inter-American Indian Institute folder, National Archives.
2. Joe Alex Morris, Nelson Rockefeller (New York: Harper & Bros., 1960), p. 137.
3. RG 229, Box 543, Records of the Immediate Office of the Coordinator, minutes of meetings and minutes of the Interdepartmental Committee on Inter-American Affairs, August 16, 1940. National Archives (located at National Records Center, Suitland, Maryland).
4. Quoted in Frank Gervasi, The Real Rockefeller (New York: Atheneum, 1964), p. 83.
5. Quoted in Morris, Nelson Rockefeller, p. 166.
6. Quoted in ibid., p. 146.
7. Laurance Duggan to Sumner Welles, December 29, 1942; see also David Green, The Containment of Latin America: A History of the Myths and Realities of the Good Neighbor Policy (Chicago: Triangle Books, 1971), p. 135.
8. Josephus Daniels to Franklin D. Roosevelt, September 4, 1939, PSF—Mexico, Franklin D. Roosevelt Library.
9. Laurance Rockefeller to William “Bud” H. McClave, June 28, 1941; McClave to L. Rockefeller, January 16, 1941; Office of the Messrs. Rockefeller, Business Files—Panama (118P), Rockefeller Family Archives, Rockefeller Archive Center, Tarrytown, New York. Laurance Rockefeller to Jesse Knight (American Colombian Corporation), December 2, 1941, in ibid.
10. Franklin Field to Nelson Rockefeller, March 27, 1942, and Field to A. Moore Montgomery, March 27, 1942, RG 229, Box 158, Inter-American Escadrille (Folders 3 and 4), National Archives.
11. Laurance Rockefeller to Edsel Ford, July 25, 1940, RG II, Office of the Messrs. Rockefeller, Business Files—Inter-American Escadrille folder, Rockefeller Family Archives, Rockefeller Archive Center.
12. James E. Farris to David L. Behneke, August 25, 1941, in ibid.
13. Carleton Beals, Lands of the Dawning Morrow (New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1948), p. 179.
14. Message of President Oscar Benavides to the Peruvian Legislature, December 9, 1937. Copy located in CIAA files, RG 229, Box 411, U.S. Section of Inter-American Indian Institute—GG 1338 folder, National Archives.
15. Moody’s Manual of Investments (New York: Frederic Hatch & Company, 1944), p. 1859.
16. Franklin D. Roosevelt to Nelson Rockefeller, January 21, 1942, and Nelson Rockefeller to Franklin D. Roosevelt, February 5, 1942, White House Official Files, Box 287, Peru folder, Roosevelt Library.
17. Nelson Rockefeller to Franklin D. Roosevelt, February 5, 1942, in ibid.
9: THE SWORD OF THE SPIRIT
1. CIAA contract No. OEM Cr-250, RG 229, Box 29, Schools and Institutions, National Archives.
2. Ethel E. Wallis and Mary A. Bennett, Two Thousand Tongues to Go (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1966), p. 178.
3. James C. Hefley and Marti Hefley, Uncle Cam (Waco, Tex.: Word Books, 1974), p. 120.
4. Translation magazine (Wycliffe Bible Translators), 1944, p. 8.
5. W. C. Townsend, “Progress Report,” April 1943, Townsend Archives.
6. “Nazi, Axis and Anti-Democratic Propaganda Addresses to or Against the Indians of the Americas,” marked “Confidential” by CIAA, E-AC-5200; RG 229, Box 411, Race—Indians, National Archives.
7. Sol Tax, “Ethnic Relations in Guatemala,” América Indígena 2 (October 1942), pp. 43–47.
8. América Indígena 2 (September 1942).
9. Harold E. Davis, Memorandum, November 8, 1943, “Inter-American Activities in the U.S. Education Programs, Schools and Institutions,” RG 229, Central Files, Box 29, National Archives. On ACLS, Rockefeller Foundation grants, beginning with $25,000 in 1927, mushroomed in 1941. By 1964, the foundation had funneled over $6 million into ACLS and had made similar large grants to the Modern Language Association. See Arthur Bernon Tourtellot, ed., Toward the Well-Being of Mankind: Fifty Years of the Rockefeller Foundation (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1964), pp. 174–75.
10. W. C. Townsend, draft memo, n. d. (c. 1942), Townsend Archives.
11. PSF Diplomatic files, Box 61, Mexico, 1940, Franklin D. Roosevelt Library.
12. George P. Murdoch et al, Outline of Cultural Materials (New Haven, Conn.: Human Relations Area Files, Yale University, 1967), pp. xiii-xiv. SIL linguists had assisted the data-collecting project of anthropologist Morris Swadesh in Mexico for Yale’s Human Relations Area Files project; copies of the files were passed to Rockefeller’s CIAA under a purchase agreement and were then renamed the Strategic Index of the Americas.
13. Files on Indians, grouped under “race,” CIAA Central Files, R6229, National Archives.
14. EAC 5200 Central Files, RG 229, Box 410, National Indian Institute folder, CIAA files, in ibid.
15. Robert Redfield, Boletín Indlgenista 3 (December 1943), pp. 213–15.
16. Clyde Kluckhohn, Mirror for Man: A Survey of Human Behavior and Social Attitudes (Greenwich, Conn.: Fawcett, 1967), p. 151.
17. W. C. Townsend, “Dear Fellow Workers,” November 27, 1943, Townsend Archives.
18. Boletín Indigenista 3 (Summer 1943), pp. 111–13.
19. The Bulnes story is recounted in Cuauhtémoc González Pacheco, Capital Extranjero en la Selva de Chiapas, 1863–1982 (Mexico City: Instituto de Investigaciones Económicas, UNAM [National Autonomous University of Mexico], 1983).
20. Wallis and Bennett, Two Thousand Tongues, pp. 163–64.
21. Hefley and Hefley, Uncle Cam, p. 125.
22. Ibid., p. 137.
10: THE SHINING DREAM
1. Felisberto C. de Camargo to Berent Friele, November 29, 1941, RG 229, General Records, Central Files, Commercial and Financial, Country Files—Brazil—Box 172, Rubber file, National Archives.
2. “Vargas Suggests U.S. Might Join in Conference of Amazon Nation,” October 13, 1940, typed reprint of article, RG 229, Box 76, Amazon Basin Project—9 folder, in ibid.
3. Stanley E. Hilton, Hitler’s Secret War in South America: German Military Espionage and Allied Counterespionage in Brazil, 1939–45 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1981), p. 19.
4. William C. Burdett, American consul general, Rio de Janeiro, “The Ford Rubber Plantations in Brazil,” June 5, 1938, RG 229, Box 172, Brazil—Rubber folder, National Archives.
5. Earl P. Hanson to Carl Spaeth, August 10, 1941, RG 229, Box 173, Investments folder, in ibid.
6. Nelson Rockefeller to Berent Friele, September 21, 1941, RG 229, Box 76, Amazon Basin Project file, in ibid.
7. Jefferson Caffery to Berent Friele, in ibid.
8. See P. C. Mangelsdorft to Henry M. Miller, Jr., June 23, 1941, 323—Agriculture, 1941, Rockefeller Foundation Archives, Rockefeller Archive Center, Tarrytown, New York.
9. Schultes’s briefings on the political beliefs of his Colombian colleagues were included in the survey of Bogotá’s agricultural education institutions by Henry M. Miller, Jr., of the Rockefeller Foundation. Miller’s November 1941 trip was an outgrowth of the foundation’s collaboration with Vice President Wallace and Nelson Rockefeller in stimulating Latin American agriculture to meet U.S. war needs. H. M. Miller, Jr., inter views, November 10–15, 1941, in ibid.
10. Earl Bressman (Department of Agriculture) to Nelson A. Rockefeller, December 12, 1941, RG 229, Box 270, Strategic Materiels folder, National Archives.
11. Earl Parker Hanson, Journey to Manaos (New York: Reynal & Hitchcock, 1938), p. 306.
12. Berent Friele to Morri
s Llewellyn Cooke, November 28, 1942, RG 229, Box 1261, folder 02.7, National Archives.
13. Project Authorization, “Amazon Basin Development Project,” February 12, 1942, in ibid.
14. Quoted in Stewart Alsop, Nixon and Rockefeller (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1960), p. 87.
15. Berent Friele to Nelson Rockefeller and Richard Kleberg, “Brazilian Political Situation,” March 6, 1942, RG 229, Box 175, Spaeth Data file, National Archives.
16. Carl Spaeth to Milo Perkins, March 17, 1942, RG 229, Box 172, Rubber file, in ibid.
17. Nelson Rockefeller to Sumner Welles, March 7, 1942, in ibid.
18. Quoted in Joe Alex Morris, Nelson Rockefeller (New York: Harper & Bros., 1960), p. 158.
19. J. C. King to Berent Friele, April 28, 1942, RG 229, Box 76, “Amazon Basin Project I” file, National Archives.
20. Ibid.
21. J. C. King to Nelson Rockefeller, June 17, 1942, p. 9, in ibid.
22. Ibid.
23. Ibid.
24. John F. Simmons [“For the Ambassador”], Counselor of Embassy, Rio de Janeiro, to the Secretary of State [Cordell Hull], Report No. 7244, May 7, 1942, Subject: Rubber Procurement in Brazil, RG 66, Box 92, Brazil—Rubber 1942–1945 folder, National Archives.
25. J. C. King to Rockefeller, June 17, 1942, RG 229, Box 76, “Amazon Basin Project I” file, p. 14, National Archives.
26. Ernest Maes to Charles Collier, July 31, 1941, in ibid.
27. Ernest Maes to Charles Collier, June 25, 1941. Memo attached to letter from John Collier to Nelson Rockefeller, October 21, 1940, in ibid.
28. Harold Ickes to Nelson Rockefeller, January 5, 1942, in ibid. Ickes’s figures were exaggerated, especially for Nicaragua.
29. Nelson Rockefeller to Harold Ickes, February 5, 1942, in ibid.
30. In 1900 the Standard Oil Trust had invested $75 million in the International Crude Rubber Company, headed by, among others, Standard Oil’s William Rockefeller. Rockefeller later switched to the U.S. Rubber Company, a firm set up in 1892 by an official of W. R. Grace & Company. By 1903, U.S. Rubber’s purchasing agent, General Rubber Company, was doing a thriving business in Indian-produced rubber in Pará and Manaus.
The other wing of the Rockefeller family, led by Nelson’s father, John D. Rockefeller, Jr., and Nelson’s maternal grandfather, Senator Nelson Aldrich, also jumped into the rubber boom. They invested in the Intercontinental Rubber Company, a venture of Thomas Fortune Ryan, Bernard Baruch, and the Guggenheims. Senator Aldrich also followed Ryan into the Amazon of Africa, the Congo. There they gained a forest monopoly in the Belgian Congo known as the American Congo Company. The group’s major concern, Intercontinental Rubber, soon developed a soiled reputation for its association with Belgium’s King Leopold, whose atrocities against Africans in the Congo rivaled the Peruvian Amazon Company’s infamy in the Putumayo in the Peruvian Amazon. To force the rubber collectors to work, Leopold raised taxes as a pretext for unleashing troops on villages, holding women and children as hostages. If production fell, that was taken as proof of rebellion, and villages were burned and looted. In one district, 6,000 Africans were killed and mutilated every six months; by 1908 an incredible 8 million people had perished. The horrors perpetrated by King Leopold in the Belgian Congo made headlines throughout Europe and the United States, but the Rockefeller association with Intercontinental Rubber was ignored in the American press, despite the telling presence of Edward Aldrich on Intercontinental’s board as late as 1918. See Howard and Ralph Wolf, Rubber (New York: Covici-Friede, 1936), and entry for Intercontinental Rubber in “Industrial Section,” Moody’s Manual of Railroads and Corporation Securities (New York; Frederic Hatch & Company, 1918).