by Gerard Colby
31. For a study of the rubber industry, see Loren G. Polhamus, Rubber: Botany Production and Utilization (New York: Interscience Publishers, 1962).
32. Ernest Maes, “Brazilian Indian Labor and Indian Administration in Relation to the Rubber Collection Program,” June 1942, RG 229, Box 411—Information; Science and Education file, U.S. Section of Inter-American Indian Institute, National Archives.
33. John Collier to Nelson Rockefeller, June 12, 1942, RG 229, Box 410, in ibid.
34. Nelson Rockefeller to John Collier, June 27, 1942, in ibid.
35. J. C. King to B. Friele, October 27, 1942, RG 229, Box 126; Rockefeller to Friele, November 16, 1942, RG 229, Box 1261, folder 02.7, Berent Friele—Coordinator (General), November 16, 1942–September 1943, National Archives.
11: THE DANCER
1. J. D. Le Cron, “Revised Project Authorization: A Project for the Improvement of Rural Diet in Mexico,” draft, October 23, 1942, RG 229, General Records, Central Files 3, Information, Box 411, Inter-American Indian Institute folder, National Archives.
2. The CIAA, with help from Yale University’s Institute of Human Relations, compiled a variety of glossaries on Amazonia. See the CLAA’s “Battle of the Amazon” by John McClintock (Pr. 32.4602; Am), “Glossary of Brazilian-Amazonian Terms” (Pr. 32.4613; B73), and “Glossary of Useful Amazonian Flora” (Pr. 32.4613; Am 2/5), all dated 1943. A “Preliminary Bibliography on Amazonia” (Pr 32.4613: Aml/prelim.) was com piled in 1942, RG 229, in ibid.
3. Candido M. da Silva Rondon, “Problema Indígena,” América Indígena 3 (January 1943), pp. 23–24.
4. This was done by deliberate design. See memorandum to Jean Pajus from Board of Economic Warfare, December 1, 1942, RG 229, Box 411, U.S. Section of Inter-American Indian Institute folder, National Archives.
5. Boletín Indigenista 3 (January 1943), p. 19.
6. Minutes of the Executive Committee of the Interdepartmental Committee on Inter-American Affairs, August 30, 1940, RG 229, Box 543, Records of the Immediate Office of the Coordinator, Minutes of Meetings, National Archives.
7. Berent Friele to Nelson Rockefeller, August 23, 1943, RG 229, Box 175, Research—Miscellaneous folder, in ibid.
8. Senate Subcommittee on War Mobilization, Cartels and National Security, Report No. 4 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1944), p. 82.
9. Joseph Borkin, The Crime and Punishment of I.G. Farben (New York: Free Press, 1978), p. 143.
10. I. F. Stone, P.M., April 5, 1943, p. 10.
11. I. F. Stone, “Officials Defied FDR’s Orders,” EM. 8 (September 28, 1942). See also The Nation, September 2, 1942.
12. See Robert E. Sherwood, Roosevelt and Hopkins (New York: Harper & Bros., 1948), p. 756.
13. William O. Douglas, Go East, Young Man (New York: Random House, 1974), pp. 364–65.
14. Frank Gervasi, The Real Rockefeller (New York: Atheneum, 1964), p. 98.
15. Quoted in Joe Alex Morris, Nelson Rockefeller (New York: Harper & Bros., 1960), p. 181.
16. Quoted in ibid., pp. 181–82.
17. Interview with J. D. Le Cron, Columbia University Oral History Project, cited in Peter Collier and David Horowitz, The Rockefellers (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1976), p. 683.
18. Ibid., p. 696.
19. James J. Matles and James Higgins, Them and Us (Boston: Beacon Press, 1974), p. 139.
20. See Bruce Catton, The Warlords of Washington (New York: Harcourt, 1948).
21. Quoted in Morris, Nelson Rockefeller, pp. 186–87.
22. Ibid., p. 835.
12: PREEMPTING THE COLD WAR
1. Carleton Beals, Lands of the Dawning Morrow (New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1948), pp. 75–76.
2. Joe Alex Morris, Nelson Rockefeller (New York: Harper & Bros., 1960), p. 191.
3. Quoted in Frank Gervasi, The Real Rockefeller (New York: Atheneum, 1964), p. 106.
4. Quoted in Morris, Nelson Rockefeller, pp. 193–94.
5. Quoted in Gervasi, The Real Rockefeller, p. 102.
6. Ibid., p. 194.
7. Quoted in William Appleman Williams, The Tragedy of American Diplomacy (Cleveland: World, 1959), p. 238.
8. Editorial, América Indígena, April 1945.
9. Nelson Rockefeller to Adolf Berle, February 1, 1945, Berle Papers, Franklin D. Roosevelt Library.
10. Quoted in David Green, The Containment of Latin America: A History of the Myths and Realities of the Good Neighbor Policy (Chicago: Triangle, 1971), pp. 139–40.
11. Quoted in Morris, Nelson Rockefeller, p. 198.
12. Quoted in Green, The Containment of Latin America, pp. 180–81.
13. Quoted in ibid.
14. Quoted in Morris, Nelson Rockefeller, p. 201.
15. Quoted in Peter Collier and David Horowitz, The Rockefellers (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1976), p. 236.
16. Quoted in Morris, Nelson Rockefeller, p. 202.
17. Green, The Containment of Latin America, p. 250.
18. Quoted in Gervasi, The Real Rockefeller, p. 113.
19. Quoted in Collier and Horowitz, The Rockefellers, p. 237.
20. W. Averell Harriman and Eli Abel, Special Envoy to Churchill and Stalin, 1941–1946 (New York: Random House, 1975), p. 455.
21. Quoted in Collier and Horowitz, The Rockefellers, p. 239n.
22. Quoted in Green, The Containment of Latin America, p. 249.
23. Quoted in Morris, Nelson Rockefeller, p. 218.
24. Len Giovannitti and Fred Freed, The Decision to Drop the Bomb (New York: Coward-McCann, 1965), p. 73.
25. James Desmond, Nelson Rockefeller: A Political Biography (New York: Macmillan, 1964), p. 126.
26. Gervasi, The Real Rockefeller, pp. 121–22.
27. Desmond, Nelson Rockefeller, p. 132.
28. Ibid.
13: LATIN AMERICA’S FIRST COLD WAR COUP
1. E. A. P. Palmer to A. Moore Montgomery, CIAA Commercial and Financial Division, October 11, 1941, RG 229, Box 172, National Archives.
2. Adolf Berle, Memorandum of April 26, 1945, Berle Papers, Franklin D. Roosevelt Library.
3. Frank Waring to Nelson Rockefeller, November 19, 1943, RG 229, Box 229, Industrial Development folder, National Archives.
4. Adolf Berle, “Management of Companhia Vale do Rio Doce,” May 24, 1945, Memorandum to State Department, Berle Papers.
5. OSS Report No. 13886, May 20,1942, Modern Military Records, National Archives.
6. Adolf Berle, Memorandum of Conversation, February 15, 1945, Berle Papers.
7. Harry S. Truman to Adolf Berle, September 13, 1945, Box 77, in ibid.
8. Paraphrase of telegram sent to the department, September 18, 1945, “Re: Political Situation in Brazil,” Diary papers, in ibid.
9. Address of Ambassador Adolf Berle before the Journalists Syndicate, Hotel Quitandinha, September 29, 1945, in ibid.
10. Adolf Berle, diary entry for October 4, 1945, summary of confidential telegram sent by Ambassador Berle, October 1, 1945, in ibid.
11. Summary of cable, October 30, 1945, in ibid.
12. Berle, diary entry, October 30, 1945, in ibid.
13. William A. Wieland to Berle, November 13, 1945, in ibid.
14. Department of State, Division of Brazilian Affairs, Memorandum of Conversation, Philip C. Chalmers, “Subject: Political Situation in Brazil,” November 1, 1945, in ibid.
15. Washington Post, November 28, 1945.
16. Philip Chalmers, Memorandum of Conversation, “Petroleum Refineries in Brazil,” October 29, 1945, Berle Papers.
17. Adolf Berle, memorandum, November 16, 1945, in ibid.
18. Peter Seaborn Smith, Oil and Politics in Modern Brazil (Toronto: Macmillan, 1976), pp. 56, 71.
19. Memorandum of Conversation, subject: “Petroleum Refining in Brazil,” November 23, 1945, participants: Adolf Berle and Messrs. Rayner, Lottus, and Chalmers, Berle Papers.
20. Philip Chalmers, memorandum of telephone conversation, December 5, 1945, in ibid.
21. P
hilip Chalmers to Spruille Braden, “Newspaper Reports of Ambassador Berle’s Recall,” December 3, 1945; Philip Chalmers to Ellis G. Briggs, November 28, 1945, in ibid.
22. Adolf Berle, memorandum, December 14, 1945, in ibid.
23. New York Times, December 6, 1946.
24. James Forrestal, Diaries, vol. 4, May 2, 1947, Papers of James Forrestal, Library of Congress.
25. Captain Bart W. Gillespie, Memorandum, “Suggested Plan for Assuring Navy of Sufficient Petroleum in the Event of Another War,” p. 5, Appendix, SWNCC 289, and “Petroleum Reserves in South America,” April 17, 1946, RG 218, Records of the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff, CCS 463.7 South America (4–17-46), National Archives.
26. Enclosure, p. 1, in ibid.
27. Gillespie, Appendix, p. 3, in ibid.
14: AMERICAN WINGS OVER THE AMAZON
1. Quoted in Ethel E. Wallis and Mary A. Bennett, Two Thousand Tongues to Go (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1966), p. 181.
2. Agreement Between the Ministry of Public Education of Peru and Mr. William C. Townsend; copy on file in the Western History Collection of the University of Oklahoma at Norman.
3. Quoted in Wallis and Bennett, Two Thousand Tongues, p. 181.
4. Quoted in Jamie Buckingham, Into the Glory (Plainfield, N.J.: Logos, 1974), p. 25.
5. W. C. Townsend to Prentice Cooper, July 20, 1946, Townsend Archives.
6. W. C. Townsend to P. Cooper, October 24, 1946, in ibid.
7. Quoted in Buckingham, Into the Glory, p. 32.
8. James C. Hefley and Marti Hefley, Uncle Cam (Waco, Tex.: Word Books, 1974), p. 153.
9. Richard Ellsworth Day, Breakfast Table Autocrat (Chicago: Moody Press, 1946), p. 59.
10. Translation magazine (Wycliffe Bible Translators), Winter 1966.
11. Quoted in Vernon A. Walters, Silent Missions (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1978), p. 165.
12. W. C. Townsend to Prentice Cooper, October 24, 1946, Townsend Archives.
13. Tad Szulc, Twilight of the Tyrants (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1959), p. 184.
14. Hefley and Hefley, Uncle Cam, p. 162. The “Hail, Caesar” characterization of SIL’s policy was originally coined by author David Stoll in Fishers of Men or Founders of Empires? The Wycliffe Bible Translators in Latin America (London: Zed Press, 1982).
15. “Second Inter-American Indian Conference and the Final Act,” Papers of Philleo Nash, White House Central File (1946–1953), National Indian Institute, Department of Interior, Harry S. Truman Library, Independence, Missouri.
16. Ibid.
17. Ibid.
18. Ibid.
19. John Collier, “Has Roxas Betrayed America?” Saturday Review of Literature, January 11, 1947, p. 15; John Collier, America’s Colonial Record (London: Fabian Publications, 1947), pp. 6–14.
20. Willard F. Barber, Memorandum on Conversation with Mr. W. C. Townsend, September 22, 1950, cited in Stoll, Fishers of Men or Founders of Empires?, pp. 81, 96.
21. See R. Immerman, The CIA in Guatemala (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1982), pp. 81–82.
22. William Cameron Townsend, Lázaro Cárdenas: Mexican Democrat (Ann Arbor, Mich.: George Wahr, 1952), p. 367.
15: THE PRETENDER AT BAY
1. During the war, when Laurance took his job with the navy, James McDonnell wrote him to ask for a little inside promotion for the company with Navy Secretary James Forrestal. McDonnell subsequently grew from a fifty-one-man staff at the time of Pearl Harbor to a vast operation with 5,000 workers, sending regular dividends to Laurance’s accountants.
When Laurance moved to the Fighter Desk in early 1945, he sold his 20 percent holding in McDonnell. He wanted to avoid charges of impropriety, taking a large capital gain. How large can be judged from what his 20 percent holding cost him the following year when he reacquired it after mustering out of the navy. What had cost him $10,000 in 1939 now cost $405,000. He paid it, cheerfully; when he sold his 73,000 shares four years later, they were worth $8 million. See McDonnell file, Office of the Messrs. Rockefeller, Rockefeller Family Archives, Rockefeller Archive Center, Tarrytown, New York.
2. Chase Bank Files, Rockefeller Family Archives, in ibid.
3. Frank Gervasi, The Real Rockefeller (New York: Atheneum, 1964), pp. 125, 126.
4. Harrison, who had been the CIAA’s assistant coordinator; Lockwood, CIAA former general counsel; Jamieson, former director of ClAA’s Press Division; and Berent Friele, former CIAA director in Brazil. Martha Dalrymple, former Associated Press reporter who had been Jamieson’s CIAA aide, came on board. Stacy May, an economist at Dartmouth College who had been wartime director of planning and statistics for Vice President Wallace’s War Production Board, was recruited as an adviser, as was the sagelike Beardsley Ruml, now chairman of RCA.
5. Joe Alex Morris, Nelson Rockefeller (New York: Harper & Bros., 1960), p. 238.
6. Peter Collier and David Horowitz, The Rockefellers (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1976), p. 260.
7. Cited in Morris, Nelson Rockefeller, p. 243.
8. Darcy Ribeiro, “Indigenous Cultures and Languages of Brazil,” in Indians of Brazil in the Twentieth Century, ed. Janice H. Hopper (Washington, D.C.: Institute for Cross Cultural Research, 1967), p. 96, Table II. Of eighty-seven indigenous groups who were destroyed between 1900 and 1957, only six had succumbed in agricultural areas; fifty-nine groups were wiped out in extractive regions, constituting the over whelming number of the 800,000 Indians who “disappeared” from the estimated population of 1 million Indians in 1900.
9. Joseph Jensen to Laurance Rockefeller, February 6, 1947, Memo, “Brazil-Phosphate Development Project,” Rockefeller Archive Center.
10. Morris, Nelson Rockefeller, p. 248.
11. New York Times, August 14, 1946, p. 8.
12. Gervasi, The Real Rockefeller, p. 129.
13. New York Times, December 11, December 15, 1948.
14. Ibid., April 23, 1949, and May 7, 1949.
15. Morris, Nelson Rockefeller, p. 254.
16. Memorandum, “Future Work,” August 23, 1946, Rockefeller Foundation Archives, Box 30, Folder 308, Rockefeller Archive Center.
17. Who’s Who in America, 37th ed. (1972–1973) (Chicago: Marquis Who’s Who, 1972).
16: THE LATIN ROAD TO POWER
1. Capus Waynich to Murphy, October 30, 1950, Cross Ref.—PPF, Folder 689, Harry S. Truman Library, Independence, Missouri.
2. Partners in Progress, Report by the International Development Advisory Board (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1951), p. 4.
3. Ibid, p. 60.
4. Ibid.
5. The charges were made in Frank Gervasi, The Real Rockefeller (New York: Atheneum, 1964), p. 138, and Joe Alex Morris, Nelson Rockefeller (New York: Harper & Bros., 1960), p. 278. Copies were, in fact, sent to the secretaries of state, treasury, defense, interior, agriculture, commerce, and labor. The vice president, the attorney general, the director of the Budget and Defense Mobilization, and the administrators of the ECA and Defense Production were sent copies. So were key members of Congress. The copies were sent out on March 9, 1951, the same day that Truman wrote Rockefeller. See PPF-689 (Nelson Rockefeller), Harry S. Truman Library.
6. House Committee on Foreign Affairs, Hearings on the Mutual Security Program (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1951), pp. 354–56.
7. Peter Collier and David Horowitz, The Rockefellers (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1976), p. 269.
8. G. William Domhoff, Who Rules America? (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1967), p. 87.
9. John Camp to Nelson Rockefeller, November 24, 1952, Camp Papers, Rockefeller Archive Center.
10. Rockefeller Foundation chairman John Foster Dulles, as chief partner of the Sullivan Cromwell law firm in 1936, had personally drafted United Fruit’s 1936 contract with the Ubico dictatorship that gave the banana company its ninety-nine-year lease with exceptional tax benefits. Nelson’s former assistant at the State Department, John Moors Cabot, owned stock in United Fruit
and had been U.S. ambassador to Guatemala. His brother, Thomas C. Cabot, Jr., had briefly been president of United Fruit. John J. McCloy, as president of the World Bank, had denied Guatemala loans after reviewing its agrarian reform and liberal labor laws; within a year, as chairman of Chase, McCloy would sit on United Fruit’s board. John McClintock, Nelson’s former chief of the CIAA’s Basic Economic Division, was now United Fruit’s vice president and chief troubleshooter for Central America.
11. Adolf Berle, diary entry, October 12, 1952, Berle Papers. Franklin D. Roosevelt Library.
12. These records were described by one of King’s superiors as “one of the most important and promising opportunities offered MIS [Military Intelligence Service] in financial intelligence.” The files provided King with information on German espionage and sabotage systems in Latin America and on German penetration of Latin American armies, political groups, industry, and finance. RG 319, Army Intelligence, 1941–1945, Folder 210.68 M/a, National Archives, Suitland, Maryland.