by Gerard Colby
49. Schlesinger, A Thousand Days, p. 230.
50. Ibid., p. 227.
51. On Pier 13, see Stanley Penn, “On the Waterfront,” in Nicolas Gage, ed., Mafia: USA (New York: Dell, 1972), p. 323. On Standard Fruit, Guatemala, organized crime (particularly John Roselli), and the CIA, see Scott, Deep Politics, pp. 108–11.
52. New York Herald Tribune, October 6, 1963.
53. Schlesinger, A Thousand Days, p. 428.
54. Quoted in ibid, p. 1023.
55. William Manchester, The Death of a President (New York: Harper & Row, 1967), p. 123.
56. Schlesinger, A Thousand Days, p. 934.
57. Alleged Assassinations Plots, p. 174.
58. Interview with Walter Sheridan, Oral History Project, Kennedy Library.
59. Seymour Freidin and George Bailey, The Experts (New York: Macmillan, 1968), p. 85.
60. Collier and Horowitz, The Kennedys, p. 317.
61. Schlesinger, A Thousand Days, p. 1029.
62. Collier and Horowitz, The Kennedys, p. 319.
28: TO TURN A CONTINENT
1. Interview with Lincoln Gordon, July 10, 1969, p. 16, Oral History Project, Lyndon B. Johnson Library.
2. Joseph B. Frantz, interview with Nelson Rockefeller, February 21, 1979, Oral History Project, in ibid.
3. Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., A Thousand Days: John F. Kennedy in the White House (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1965), p. 1019.
4. Memorandum, John A. McCone to Lyndon Johnson, December 3, 1963, Johnson Library.
5. Lyndon B. Johnson to Adolf Berle, December 19, 1963, Berle Papers, Franklin D. Roosevelt Library.
6. Interview with Lincoln Gordon, p. 14, Oral History Project, Johnson Library.
7. Adolf Berle, diary entry, October 19, 1961, Berle Papers.
8. Berent Friele to Walter Crawford, October 9, 1961, AIA Archives, Box 7, September/October 1961 folder, Rockefeller Archive Center, Tarrytown, New York.
9. See Philip Agee, diary entry for February 10, 1964, in Inside the Company (Harmondsworth, Eng.: Penguin, 1975), p. 321.
10. Memorandum, John F. Kennedy to Fowler Hamilton, February 2, 1962, John F. Kennedy Library.
11. Jerome Levinson and Juan de Onis, The Alliance That Lost Its Way (Chicago: Quadrangle, 1970), p. 145.
12. Jan Knippers Black, United States Penetration of Brazil (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1977), p. 68.
13. Ibid.
14. Donald E. Syrud, Foundations of Brazilian Economic Growth (Stanford, Calif.: Hoover Institution Press, 1974), p. 17.
15. Ibid., p. 14.
16. AIA Report, March 11, 1961, AIA Archives, Box 15, Folder 134, Rockefeller Archive Center.
17. Philip M. Glick to Lawrence H. Levy and John R. Camp (AIA), March 15, 1962, in ibid.
18. Philip M. Glick to Walter Crawford (AIA-Rio), March 26, 1962, in ibid.
19. John R. Camp, “Suggestion for Rural Development in Brazil,” November 1960. Proposal to the International Cooperative Administration, AIA Archives, Box 7, Folder 58, in ibid.
20. Flor P. Brennan to John Camp, November 9, 1962, AIA Archives, Box 7, Folder 63, Projects: Brazil, in ibid.
21. Walter Crawford to Berent Friele, “Subject: Ideas on Establishing a Foundation for the Development of the Planalto Central,” February 6, 1963, AIA Archives, Box 7, Folder 63, in ibid.
22. Engineering and Mining Journal, November 1975, pp. 170–71.
23. Preliminary Report of the Planalto Pre-Survey Group, 1963, p. 27, AIA Archives, Box 8, Folder 65, Rockefeller Archive Center.
24. Ibid., pp. 20, 23.
25. Berent Friele to Adolf Berle, February 7, 1961, AIA Archives, Box 7, Folder 59, Brazil, in ibid.
26. John Camp to Walter L. Crawford, March 15, 1963, in ibid.
27. Philip Glick to John Camp, October 30, 1962, in ibid.
28. Crawford to Camp, March 2, 1963, in ibid.
29. Crawford to Camp, March 28, 1963, in ibid.
30. Preliminary Report of the Planalto Pre-Survey Group, pp. 83, 17, 32, AIA Archives, Box 8, Folder 65, in ibid.
31. Central Intelligence Agency, “Economic Deterioration and Leftist Gains in Brazil.” Microfilm copies of these CIA research reports can be obtained through University Publications of America, 44 North Market Street, Frederick, Md. 21701.
32. Alfred Métraux, “Disparition des Indiens dans le Brésil Central,” Bulletin of the International Committee on Urgent Anthropological and Ethnological Research (Vienna), no. 5 (1962), p. 131.
33. Darcy Ribeiro, A Politico Indigenista Brasileira (Rio de Janeiro: Ministerio da Agricultura Serviço de Informação o Agricola [Atvalidade Agrâria, 1], 1962), p. 99.
34. Carlos de Araújo Neto Moreira, “Relatório Sôbre a Situação Atual dos Indios Kayapó,” Revtsta de Antropologia, São Paulo, nos. 1 and 2 (1959), pp. 49–64.
35. Roberto Cardoso de Oliveira, “The Role of Indian Posts in the Process of Assimilation,” América lndígena (Mexico City), no. 2 (1960), pp. 89–95; Roberto Cardoso de Oliveira, O Processo da Assimilação dos Terêna (monograph), 1960, Rio de Janeiro; “A Situacão Atual dos Tapirape,” Boletim do Museu Paraense, Emílio Goeldi; Nova Serie, Antropologia (Belém, Pará), 1959, no. 3, pp. 3–4.
36. “Germ Warfare Against Indians Is Charged in Brazil,” Medical Tribune and Medical News, December 8, 1969.
37. Noel Nutels, “Medical Problems of Newly Contacted Indian Groups,” in Biomedical Challenges Presented by the American Indian (Washington, D.C.: Pan American Health Organization, 1968), pp. 68–76.
38. When McChristian arrived in Greece, the CIA had just conducted its first counterinsurgency campaign with mostly conventional methods in conjunction with the Greek Army. The Joint United States Military Advisory Group (JUSMAG) was being used as a cover by CIA officers who were carrying out a mop-up campaign of arrests and terror directed by Station Chief Thomas Karamessines. Like McChristian, Karamessines went on to fame in intelligence circles as CIA deputy director of plans. See Yiannis Roubatis and Karen Wynn, “CIA Operations in Greece,” and Philip Agee, “The American Factor in Greece: Old and New,” in Philip Agee and Louis Wolf, eds., Dirty Work: The CIA in Western Europe (Secaucus, N.J.: Lyle Stuart, 1978).
39. New York Times, November 1, 1961, pp. 1, 12; New York Times, November 2, 1961, p. 6.
40. Agee, Inside the Company, pp. 226–34.
41. Ibid., p. 243.
42. Donald Johnson to W. C. Townsend, April 2, 1962, Townsend Archives.
43. Donald Johnson to W. C. Townsend, June 14, 1962, in ibid.
44. Interview with Roswell Gilpatric, Oral History Project, Kennedy Library.
45. Jerry Elder to Cameron Townsend, December 4, 1962, Townsend Archives.
46. Lawrence W. Routh to Kenneth L. Waters, January 9, 1961, in ibid.
47. The Pew Memorial Fund’s $1,000 covered the cost of rebuilding, modernizing, and installing radio equipment. See Fred Hufnegel to W. C. Townsend, July 16, 1961, in ibid.
48. Peter Seaborn Smith, Oil and Politics in Modern Brazil (Toronto: Macmillan, 1976), pp. 157–58, citing Journal do Brasil statistics.
49. Ethel E. Wallis and Mary A. Bennett, Two Thousand Tongues to Go (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1966), p. 48.
50. James Wilson to Robert Schneider, December 31, 1961, Townsend Archives.
51. Memorandum, Jim Wilson to Robert Schneider, December 30, 1961, “Re: Spirit of Philadelphia,” in ibid.
52. Jim Wilson to Dale Kietzman, October 24, 1961, in ibid.
53. Jim Wilson to W. C. Townsend, January 10, 1962, in ibid.
54. Ibid.
55. This latter estimate was made by the Ministry of Interior’s Investigation Commission in 1967; see Norman Lewis, The Missionaries (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1988).
56. Jim Wilson to W. C. Townsend, August 20, 1962, Townsend Archives.
57. John Camp, Memorandum, May 3, 1963, AIA Archives, Rockefeller Archive Center.
58. Memorandum No. 14 for National Security Council Executive Meeting,
December 11, 1963, Vice Presidential Security File, Box 4, National Security Council folder, Johnson Library.
59. Memorandum, Benjamin H. Read to McGeorge Bundy, December 27, 1963, White House Central File, Confidential File, Box 7, Folder CO 37-Brazil, in ibid.
60. William Cameron Townsend to President Johnson, December 16, 1963, Townsend Archives.
61. W.C. Townsend to Carlos Sanz de Santamaría, February 13, 1964, in ibid.
62. Ibid.
63. Jim Wilson to Robert Schneider, cc: Townsend and Kietzman, November 20, 1961, in ibid.
29: OPERATION BROTHER SAM
1. Jan Knippers Black, United States Penetration of Brazil (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1977), p. 83.
2. Adolf Berle, diary entry, April 2, 1964, Berle Papers, Franklin D. Roosevelt Library.
3. Black, United States Penetration of Brazil, p. 41.
4. Rio Embassy Telegram A-927, February 3, 1964, p. 2, in National Security File, Country File—Brazil, folder: Brazil—Cables Vol. 1, Lyndon B. Johnson Library.
5. Black, United States Penetration of Brazil, p. 131.
6. Philip Agee, Inside the Company (Harmondsworth, Eng.: Penguin, 1975), p. 615.
7. See Ronald Radosh, American Labor and U.S. Foreign Policy: The Cold War in the Unions from Gompers to Lovestone (New York: Random House, 1970), chap. 13.
8. Agee, Inside the Company, pp. 609, 602, and 620, respectively. The banks were First National City Bank of New York (which then handled the banking of Bethlehem Steel, co-owner of the giant manganese lode in Amapá with the Antunes group), First National Bank of Boston (whose directors included Thomas Cabot, past president of United Fruit, and Paul C. Cabot, director also of M. A. Hanna [Mining] and Company and cousin of recent ambassador to Brazil John Moors Cabot), and Royal National Bank of Canada (the principal bank of J. Peter Grace’s Brazilian Traction Light and Power [later called Brascan, Ltd.], Rio and São Paulo’s largest electric and telephone company).
9. Black, United States Penetration of Brazil, p. 76.
10. Ibid., p. 70.
11. Agee, Inside the Company, p. 321.
12. Alfred Stepan, The Military in Politics: Changing Patterns in Brazil (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1971), pp. 31–42, 167–68.
13. Black, United States Penetration of Brazil, chap. 17.
14. Office of the Deputy Chief of Staff for Military Operations, U.S. Department of the Army, “Doctrinal Guidance for the Future,” Army Information.
15. Joseph Novitski, “Latin Lands Turning to Europe,” New York Times, May 4, 1971, pp. 1, 7.
16. Adolf Berle, diary entry, April 2, 1964, Berle Papers.
17. Black, United States Penetration of Brazil, p. 112. According to reports in Fortune magazine, Gordon left an identical impression with representatives of the Mesquita family, owners of the powerful daily newspaper O Estado de São Paulo, the major voice of coffee barons and of Lacerda’s UDN party.
18. Adolf Berle, diary entry, April 2, 1964, Berle Papers.
19. Eugene H. Methvin, “Labor’s New Weapon for Democracy,” Reader’s Digest (October 1966), pp. 21–28.
20. William Blum, The CIA: A Forgotten History (London: Zed Books, 1980), p. 197.
21. Black, United States Penetration of Brazil, p. 84.
22. Norman Blume, “Pressure Groups and Decision-Making in Brazil,” Studies in Comparative International Development 3, no. 11 (1967–1968), p. 217.
23. Agee, Inside the Company, p. 362.
24. Jerome Levinson and Juan de Onis, The Alliance That Lost Its Way (Chicago: Quadrangle, 1970), p. 89.
25. Black, United States Penetration of Brazil, p. 83.
26. Dicionario Histórico-Biográfico Brasileiro 1930–1983 (Rio de Janeiro: Forensa Universitaria, 1984), p. 3047.
27. Black, United States Penetration of Brazil, p. 83.
28. Adolf Berle, diary entry, April 2, 1964, Berle Papers.
29. Within a year, the Brazilian navy, in turn, would provide an oceanographic vessel to Hanna Mining to help Hanna develop plans to build deep-water loading facilities at Sepetiba Bay, sixty miles south of Rio de Janeiro. The concession was granted by Castelo Branco’s presidential decree in accordance with a development plan previously proposed by Roberto Campos and rejected by Goulart.
30. Black, United States Penetration of Brazil, p. 45. Walters later would deny knowing about O’Meara’s presence in Brazil except for a visit six months before the coup, but he did confirm reassuring O’Meara then that “things would fall into place pretty quickly.”
31. Cable, Lincoln Gordon to Secretary of State Dean Rusk et al., March 27, 1964, National Security File, Country File—Brazil, Box 10, folder: Brazil—Cables Vol. 2, Lyndon B. Johnson Library.
32. Lincoln Gordon to Dean Rusk et al., March 29, 1964, in ibid.
33. Adolf Berle, diary entry, May 14, 1964, Berle Papers.
34. CIA Intelligence Information Cable, March 30, 1964, Document No. 13, National Security File, Country File—Brazil, Box 10, folder: Brazil—Cables Vol. 2, Johnson Library.
35. See João Goulart, “Address to the Sergeants, March 30, 1964,” in Richard Fager and Wayne A. Cornellius, eds., Political Power in Latin America: Seven Confrontations (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1970), pp. 182–86.
36. Dicionario Histórico-Biográfico Brasileiro 1930–1983, pp. 3046–48.
37. John L. Chew, Rear Admiral and Vice Director for Operations, Joint Chiefs of Staff, to Carrier Task Group, March 31, 1964, Document No. 7, National Security File, Country File—Brazil, Box 10, folder: Brazil—Cables Vol. 2, Johnson Library.
38. Lewis H. Diuguid, “LBJ’s Plan in Brazil Coup,” Washington Post, December 29, 1976; copy in ibid.
39. Black, United States Penetration of Brazil, p. 70.
40. Ibid., p. 69.
41. Dean, American Embassy Brasília, to Secretary of State [Rusk], April 1, 1964, 10 P.M. Document NO. 001073, National Security File, Country File—Brazil, Box 10, folder: Brazil—Cables Vol. 3 (4/64), Johnson Library.
42. Andres Gunder Frank, Latin America: Underdevelopment or Revolution? (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1967), pp. 105–6. After the coup, the National Labor Federation would be declared illegal, and government intervenors would take over 409 unions, 43 labor federations, and 4 labor confederations.
43. Cable, Lincoln Gordon to Secretary of State Dean Rusk, April 2, 1964, National Security File, Country File—Brazil, Box 10, folder: Brazil—Cables Vol. 3 (4/64), Johnson Library.
44. Interview with Lincoln Gordon, p. 26, Oral History Project, in ibid.
45. Tad Szulc, “U.S. May Abandon Effort to Deter Latin Dictators,” New York Times, March 19, 1964, p. 1.
46. Vernon A. Walters, Silent Missions (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1978), pp. 388–89.
47. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, Hearings on the Nomination of Lincoln Gordon to Be the Assistant Secretary of State for Inter-American Affairs, February 7, 1966 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1966), pp. 44–45.
48. CIA Intelligence information cable, April 6, 1964, National Security File, Country File—Brazil, Box 10, Johnson Library.
49. Blum, The CIA, p. 187; Agee, Inside the Company, pp. 364–65.
50. Agee, Inside the Company, pp. 366, 379. The agents were former ambassador to Mexico Manuel Pio Correa, Lyle Fontoura, and Colonel Canara Sena.
51. Ultima Hora, April 8, 1964.
52. Peter Seaborn Smith, Oil and Politics in Modern Brazil (Toronto: Macmillan, 1976), p. 170.
53. By then, Brazilians and Americans had already put together a consortium that was interested in developing oil from Brazil’s oil shale. Using Brazil’s contacts with Soviet technicians to create a Cold War scare, the consortium gained a hearing from Assistant Secretary Mann and McGeorge Bundy, chairman of the National Security Council. Its lobbyist was Fowler Hamilton, former chief of AID and law partner of Undersecretary of State George Ball. Castelo Branco ended up breaking the agreement with
the Soviets, acceding to the wishes of the syndicate led by Adolf Berle’s friend, coup oil broker Alberto Byington. Byington’s role in the oil-shale scheme is outlined in correspondence between Irvin Hoff (of the U.S. Cane Sugar Refiners Association) and presidential aide Bill Moyers, October 24, 1964, and December 9, 1964 (Moyer’s draft), and Henry W. Clark (vice president of Atlanta Steamship Company) to McGeorge Bundy, October 14, 1964. The four letters are attached to an October 14, 1964, report entitled “Brazil: Unprecedented Opportunity for Free World,” in White House General Files, CO-31, Box 16, folder CB37-Brazil, 11/22/63–10/21/65, Johnson Library.
54. New York Times, October 2, 1964.
55. Ibid., June 18, 1964.
56. Paulo R. Schilling, “Brazil: The Rebellion of the Downtrodden,” Marcha (Montevideo), July 16, 1971, reprinted by Latin American Documentation Center, Mexico City (Document 9b), November 1971.
57. New York Times, November 7, 1964.
58. Ibid., November 23, 1964.
59. Ibid., December 15, 1964.
60. Levinson and de Onis, The Alliance That Lost Its Way, pp. 117–20.
61. Cable (No. 39), Central Intelligence Agency, October 15, 1965, National Security File, Country File—Brazil, folder: Brazil—Cables Vol. 5 (9/65–11/65), Johnson Library.
62. Moody’s Municipal and Government Manual (New York: Frederic Hatch & Company, 1965), p. 2926.
63. Walters, Silent Missions, pp. 400–401.
64. Marek Lubomirski to Richard Aldrich, December 13, 1963, Broehl Papers, Box 7, Funds—Brazil folder, Rockefeller Archive Center, Tarrytown, New York.
65. Lubomirski to Aldrich, January 22, 1965, in ibid.
66. Berent Friele to Nelson Rockefeller, March 23, 1964, Papers of Nelson Rockefeller, Countries Series, Box 16, Folder 107, Rockefeller Family Archives, in ibid.
67. Friele to Rockefeller, April 9, 1964, in ibid.
68. Nelson Rockefeller to Pascoal Ramieri Mazzilli, April 3, 1964, in ibid.
69. International Basic Economy Corporation, Annual Report, 1964, p. 3.
70. Black, United States Penetration of Brazil, p. 78.