Tears in the Darkness
Page 47
CHAPTER TWO
1. Ryotaro Nishimura, interviews with authors, 2000—2002.
2. Smaller landings had taken place earlier on Luzon, and two days after the main force secured the beach at Lingayen, some 7,000 troops of the 16th Division landed south of Manila on Luzon’s east coast at Lamon Bay. Morton, Fall of the Philippines, 125, lists 14th Army total strength at the time of the invasion (combat, support, and air force troops) at 43,110.
3. Morton, Fall of the Philippines, 50.
4. Historical Section, Japanese Studies in World War II, Monograph 1, 13.
5. Ardant du Picq, “Battle Studies,” 157; Stouffer et al., The American Soldier, 54–81.
6. Historical Section, Japanese Studies in World War II, Monograph 1, 13.
7. Watson, Chief of Staff, 432–33.
8. Jose, The Philippine Army, 102.
9. Wainwright, General Wainwright’s Story, 7; Philippine Department Plan Orange, 1940 Revision 1, RG 165, NARA, quoted in Jose, The Philippine Army, 185.
10. Hersey, Men on Bataan, 289; Linn, Guardians of the Empire, 229, 236.
11. Watson, Chief of Staff, 415.
12. Leeb, “Defense,” 13–14.
13. Linn, Guardians of the Empire, 171–78. Watson, Chief of Staff, has many of the key documents that detail the changing strategies in Washington and tactics in Manila, but Linn, particularly in chapter 9, “Orange to Rainbow, 1919–1940,” puts together the disparate pieces of evidence and offers a coherent narrative of the confusion, interservice rivalries, personal ambitions of military leaders, and an air of unreality that, eventually, led to disaster.
14. From a 1941 memo to the army chief of staff, quoted in Watson, Chief of Staff, 389.
15. Linn, Guardians of the Empire, 240–45; Jose, The Philippine Army, 175; Watson, Chief of Staff, 420–21.
16. Watson, Chief of Staff, 432; MacArthur, Memorandum: “Defense of the Philippines.”
17. Poweleit, USAFFE, 18–20.
18. Mallonée, Naked Flagpole, 30.
19. Ibid., 32–35.
20. Blesse, “The Filipino Fighting Man,” 6; Mallonée, Naked Flagpole, 31.
21. Brougher, “Battle of Bataan,” 1.
22. William H. Gentry, interview, 1998.
23. Miller, Bataan Uncensored, 94.
24. There are no official records to confirm that Lieutenant Ben Morin was the first POW in the islands in World War II. He was captured sometime in the early or midafternoon of December 22, 1941. It is possible that other Americans serving as advisers to the Philippine Army were taken prisoner when their units collapsed the same day or that an American pilot might earlier have gone down behind enemy lines. From his conversations with the authors, Morin believes his unit was the first to be taken captive, a distinction he does not value.
25. All the preceding comes from a 2000 interview with Ben Morin. Father Morin—he took his vows in 1948 and spent much of his tenure as a priest working with the poor in Latin America—says that during the war he prayed almost exclusively to the Blessed Mother and is more than likely to have done so on the road to Lingayen Gulf.
26. MacArthur, Radio Message to AGWAR, December 22, 1941, uses the 40,000 figure. Morton, Fall of the Philippines, 162, calculates that, in fact, MacArthur had some 80,000 men on the main island, roughly 20,000 Americans and Philippine Scouts in American ranks, and the rest Philippine Army reservists and regulars. MacArthur likely offered the fiction to support his contention that he was suffering an “enormous tactical discrepancy.” Although he outnumbered the Japanese some two to one, using Wainwright’s ratio of the number of troops actually prepared for combat, he likely had no more than 8,000 men who, at that point, could put up a fight.
CHAPTER THREE
1. This account is based on Swinson, Four Samurai, 34–36; Tsunoda, Once There Was a Dream, 205–15; Okada, “The Tragic General.”
2. Tsunoda, Once There Was a Dream, 212–15.
3. Ibid, 222–23.
4. USA v. Homma, 3047–56.
5. Homma, “Statement on the Charge,” 2; Thompson, Doud, and Scofield, How the Japanese Army Fights, 14; Tsunoda, Once There Was a Dream, 230.
6. Tasuku Yamanari, Kozo Watanabe, Isao Shinohara, Yoshiaki Nagai, interviews, 2000.
7. Whitman, Bataan, 1–9, pulls together details from many sources, including Mallonée, Collier, Toland, and others. For this section we also draw on Duckworth, “Official History”; Jackson, Diary; and Lee, They Call It Pacific.
8. Volckmann, We Remained, 24; Whitman, Bataan, 3–4.
9. Wainwright, General Wainwright’s Story, 46.
10. Lee, They Call It Pacific, 135.
11. Dooley, “Personal Record,” 51; Wainwright, General Wainwright’s Story, 45.
12. Whitman, Bataan, 24–25, 76.
13. Ibid., 115ff, 134.
14. Tsunoda, Once There Was a Dream, 228.
15. Ibid., 227–28.
16. MacArthur, Reports, vol. 2, part 1, 81.
17. Tsunoda, Once There Was a Dream, 240.
18. “The Fall of Manila,” New York Times, January 3, 1942.
19. Tsunoda, Once There Was a Dream, 239–42.
20. Arhutick, “Diary,” 2; Ind, Bataan, 189.
CHAPTER FOUR
1. Material in this section is drawn from Committee on History, Bataan; Paguio, Bataan; Merrill, Plant Life, 75; Allied Geographic Section, Terrain Handbook 42.
2. Tsunoda, Once There Was a Dream, 237–38.
3. U.S. Army General Headquarters, Statement by Masami Maeda, March 7, 1950, 3.
4. U.S. Army General Headquarters, Interrogation of Tokutaro Sato, April 18, 1947.
5. Tsunoda, Once There Was a Dream, 252.
6. ATIS, Combat in the Mt. Natib Area, 2.
7. U.S. Army General Headquarters, Interrogation of Akira Nara; Toland, interview with Akira Nara.
8. Toland, interview with Akira Nara.
9. Slim, Defeat into Victory, 537.
10. Tsunoda, Once There Was a Dream, 243–44.
11. Imai, “Tragedy of Fukuyama Regiment,” 2.
12. Tsunoda, Once There Was a Dream, 243; Imai, “Tragedy of Fukuyama Regiment,” 1.
13. Imperial Japanese Forces in the Philippines, “New Order,” 80, 100–102, 193.
14. Coox, Unfought War, 29; Tolischus, Through Japanese Eyes, 112.
15. ATIS, Luzon Campaign 16th Division, 72–74; ATIS, Combat in the Mt. Natib Area, 2.
16. This scene is drawn from Toland, interview with Akira Nara, and U.S. Army General Headquarters, Interrogation of Akira Nara, June 14, 1949, 2.
17. Hideo Sekihara, interview, 2000.
18. “Banzai” has many meanings. In its simplest form, it is a way of saying “hurrah,” an unadulterated cheer, but it is also shorthand for “Long live the emperor” (Tenno Heika banzai!) and suggests a swelling of patriotic sentiment.
19. Details are drawn from Lory, Japan’s Military Masters; Nihon Senbotsu Gakusei Kinen-Kai, Listen to the Voices; Office of Strategic Services, Morale in the Japanese Military Services; Tasaki, Long the Imperial Way; Noma, Zone of Emptiness. On this or any subject about the training and practice of the Imperial Army, Drea’s In the Service of the Emperor should be required reading.
20. Tasaki, Long the Imperial Way, 16.
21. Saxe, “Reveries,” 245–46; Tanaka, Hidden Horrors, 202–203; Noma, Zone of Emptiness, 153–54, 228.
22. Tsurumi, Social Change, 116–17.
23. Details in this section are drawn from Gibney, Sensō, and Nihon Senbotsu Gakusei Kinen-Kai, Listen to the Voices.
24. The figure 2,287,000 represents the number of men under arms in December 1941.
25. Friday, Samurai, 18, 137–38, and throughout. Karl Friday and Thomas Conlan are among a new generation of scholars who have cut through the hoary myths of samurai loyalty and fidelity that until recently dominated this field of scholarship. The elegant and lyrical work of Ivan Morris, to cite just one example, offers a misleading view of samurai ethics and lif
e. Until recently that view, largely romantic, was drawn mostly from literary texts. Instead Friday and Conlan went back to original documents from the early eras of Japanese warfare and offer a new, clear-eyed portrait of the samurai.
26. Jansen, “Samurai,” 528.
27. Ikegami, Taming of the Samurai, 285, 281. We combined two sections of the Hagakure here. Hagakure translates as “in the shadow of the leaves,” and Ikegami (290) suggests that the title reflects the samurai ethic of “service without recognition,” or selfless service. There are several English translations of selected portions of the Hagakure. Yamamoto (Wilson trans.) and the lines Ikegami uses in her study of the samurai fall most easily, and clearly, on the English-speaking ear. The most complete version, with index, numbered sections, and an excellent introduction, is Yamamoto (Mukoh trans.). Forsaking consistency for clarity and style, we made use of all three sources.
28. Ikegami translates Bushido as “culture of honor” (Taming of the Samurai, 281–82) and it reflects a style of scholarship that tended to ennoble ancient Japanese warriors. Conlan and Friday largely redefined honor in terms of self-interest, but there are excellent examples of the classic historiography—extrapolating history from literature rather than primary sources—in Singer, Mirror, Sword and Jewel, and Morris, Nobility of Failure. The provenance of Bushido suggested here is explained well and concisely in Sansom, Japan, 498–507.
29. From the Imperial Rescript to Soldiers and Sailors issued in 1882 to the newly formed armed forces. Lory, Japan’s Military Masters, 239–45. In an appendix, Lory includes a complete translation of the rescript.
30. Ashmead-Bartlett, Port Arthur, 480–82.
31. All this is another way to think of Yamato-damashi, “Japanese spirit.” A good definition of the term is offered in a footnote to Sakurai, Human Bullets, 10.
32. Humphreys, Way of the Heavenly Sword, 12.
33. Ibid.; Collected Imperial Edicts: Battlefield Practices, 3.
34. ATIS, Combat in the Mt. Natib Area, 15.
35. Imai, “Tragedy of Fukuyama Regiment,” 3; Tsunoda, Once There Was a Dream, 245; ATIS, Combat in the Mt. Natib Area, 10.
36. ATIS, Combat in the Mt. Natib Area, 16.
37. Nakamura, Diary, 8.
38. ATIS, Combat in the Mt. Natib Area, 17–18.
39. Nakamura, Diary, 8.
40. Imai, “Tragedy of Fukuyama Regiment,” 11–14.
41. Nakamura, Diary, 8.
42. Homma, Hito Hakengun, 5. Although Homma is listed as the author, the actual editor is Watari Shudan Hōdōbu or the Department of Information, Watari Group (Watari the code name for the 14th Army).
43. Tsunoda, Once There Was a Dream, 245.
44. ATIS, 65th Brigade Combat Report, 99–100.
45. Ibid.
46. Nakamura, Diary, 8.
47. Hideo Sekihara, interview, 2000.
48. ATIS, Combat in the Mt. Natib Area, 29.
49. Nakamura, Diary, 9.
50. Ibid. The last entry in the diary is January 23, 1942. Nakamura’s diary was one of several recovered by USAFFE soldiers from dead Japanese and sent to MacArthur’s intelligence section on Corregidor for translation.
51. Hideo Sekihara, interview, 2000.
52. Minobu Kawaguchi, interview, 2000.
53. Stanton, “Bataan.”
54. The story of the landing and battle at Quinauan Point is drawn from Morton, Fall of the Philippines, 296–324; Whitman, Bataan, 269–93; interview with Kiyoshi Kinoshita; Tsuneoka, Gyokusai.
55. Tsuneoka, Gyokusai, 5, 48. This message was never delivered. After the Americans surrendered in April 1942, Imperial Japanese Army officer Noboru Tsuneoka was sent to search for Tsunehiro’s missing battalion on the west coast of Bataan. The search party found the colonel’s body. Tsuneoka wrote: “When I examined the pockets in the uniform, I discovered a piece of paper. This was the report that Tsunehiro had written to Division leader Kimura.”
56. Hearn, Japan, 245; Gauntlett, Cardinal Principles, 83.
57. Gauntlett, Cardinal Principles, 83; Hearn, Japan, 245; Tsunoda et al., Sources of Japanese Tradition, 1: 99. The Yasukuni Shrine was established in 1869 to honor the 3,588 souls of those who died fighting to create what was to become Japan’s constitutional monarchy. Soon the names of all those who died for their country were enshrined there. The history of the Yasukuni Shrine was taught often in school, usually after a dramatic tale of death and glory. And in the decades leading up to World War II, the role of the shrine was included in the daily catechism of training camp.
58. Lory, Japan’s Military Masters, 81.
59. Kishimoto, “Some Japanese Cultural Traits,” 119; Lory, Japan’s Military Masters, 45; Hearn, Kokoro, 283–85, 291; Collected Imperial Edicts: Battlefield Practices, 4, 6.
60. Hearn, Kokoro, 290–91.
61. All the details of Kiyoshi Kinoshita’s story are drawn from two interviews (one with the authors and a follow-up interview with an associate) and from several pieces of correspondence.
62. Dyess, Dyess Story, 43.
63. The ideas on shame in this section are more fully explained in Edwards, “Honour, Shame, Humiliation”; Benedict, Chrysanthemum and the Sword; Doi, Anatomy of Dependence. Doi and Benedict represent, in effect, the two sides in the debate over Nipponjinron. We found both positions reflected in the interviews we conducted.
CHAPTER FIVE
1. The details of this important meeting were first reported by John Toland in But Not in Shame. We drew on Toland’s original interviews, preserved in handwritten notes, and on two interviews we conducted with junior staff officers who were in attendance at the time—Tokutaro Sato and Moriya Wada. We also relied on Homma’s diary as it appears in Tsunoda, Once There Was a Dream.
2. Tsunoda, Once There Was a Dream, 252–53.
3. Ibid.
4. Toland, interview with Kumao Imoto; Hewlett, Original Cable.
5. These figures represent an attempt to reconcile several sources: Whitman, Bataan; Morton, Fall of the Philippines; Toland, But Not in Shame; USA v. Homma (especially Exhibit Y, February 9, 1946, Prosecution Exhibits 401–25, vol. 5); ATIS, Combat in the Mt. Natib Area; ATIS, 65th Brigade Combat Report; U.S. Department of the Army, “Information Regarding Strength and Composition.”
6. Tokutaro Sato, interview, 2000.
7. This and all from Homma that follows in this section, including the incident on the train, are drawn from Tsunoda, Once There Was a Dream, 252–58.
8. MacArthur, Cable Nos. 258, 371, 382.
9. Dooley, “Personal Record,” 84.
10. MacArthur, Cable No. 438.
11. This section is drawn from Stauffer, Quartermaster Corps, chap. 1; Ancheta, Wainwright Papers, vol. 4, chap. II; James, Years of MacArthur, vol. 2, part I; Miller, Bataan Uncensored, 75–76.
12. MacArthur, “Message from General MacArthur,” January 15, 1942.
13. Hewlett, “Quartermasters on Bataan,” 64.
14. Hill, “Lessons of Bataan,” 14–15.
15. Ibid.; Dominick Pellegrino, correspondence with authors.
16. Schedler, “Bombs in Manila Bay,” 4.
17. Jackson, Diary, 44.
18. Ind, Bataan, 336.
19. Ibid., 296.
20. Cooper, “Army Medical Department Activities,” 37; Chunn, Of Rice and Men, 1.
21. Cooper, “Memorandum to AC of S G-4.”
22. Bumgarner, Parade of the Dead, 71.
23. Cooper, “Army Medical Department Activities,” Appendix 3; Hibbs, “Beriberi,” 275; Keys, Biology of Human Starvation, 783–818.
24. Keys, Biology of Human Starvation, 790; Wilson, “Address to Congress,” 430.
25. Brawner G-4, Memorandum to Dept A. G.
26. Gillespie, “Malaria,” 506; Wainwright, General Wainwright’s Story, 63; Funk, “Medical Supply Situation.”
27. Dooley, “Personal Record,” 114–16.
28. Miller, Bataan Uncensored, 193.
29. Beck, MacArthur and Wainwright, 66.
30. Ibid., 67–68; Dooley, “Personal Record,” 45.
31. Beck, MacArthur and Wainwright, 40; Marshall, “Strategic Policy.”
32. Roosevelt, Fireside Chats “On the Progress of the War,” February 23, 1942.
33. James, Years of MacArthur, 2: 125–41; Considine, “MacArthur the Magnificent,” February 23 and 24, 1942.
34. Miller, Bataan Uncensored, 193; Morton, interview with Sutherland.
35. Waldrop, MacArthur on War, 353–66; Considine, “MacArthur the Magnificent,” March 14, 1942.
36. MacArthur, Radio Message to AGWAR, January 23, 1942; Lee, They Call It Pacific, 252; Willoughby and Chamberlain, MacArthur, 49; Huff, My Fifteen Years with General MacArthur, 8.
37. Beck, MacArthur and Wainwright, 108; Huff, My Fifteen Years with General MacArthur, 52–32; Wainwright, General Wainwright’s Story, 4. There are many versions of the story surrounding MacArthur’s decision to abandon his command. The earliest versions come from the journalists Frazier Hunt and Clark Lee, fashioned from interviews with MacArthur. In his Reminiscences (140), MacArthur says he planned to resign his commission and join the troops in the trenches on Bataan. In fact there are no truly independent accounts of what the general said or was thinking after he received the order.
38. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 142–43; Huff, My Fifteen Years with General MacArthur, 56.
39. Chunn, Of Rice and Men, ii. The wallpaper paste simile was common in the interviews.
40. We were unable to find either the first publication or provenance of this bit of doggerel, so popular on Bataan and later in literature about the battle. Most historians rely on Wainwright, General Wainwright’s Story, 54, for the lyrics. He states unequivocally that United Press correspondent Frank Hewlett wrote them, but Hewlett’s daughter, Jean Hewlett, told us in an interview, “I have clear memories of my father saying that he did not create” the ditty. She reckoned he heard it in the field and “improved it a bit when he wrote it down.”
WHISKEY, WAGES, AND THE KINDNESS OF STRANGERS
1. Judgment Roll 5516, The United States oft America v. Ben Steele, March 17, 1934, indictment.
CHAPTER SIX
1. Toland, interview with Takushiro Hattori, one of the planners of the second offensive. Hattori says there were 16,000 troops in the 16th Division, 8,000 in the 65th Brigade, and 15,000 in the 4th Division.