The Last Empress
Page 1
ALSO BY HANNAH PAKULA
An Uncommon Woman: The Empress Frederick:
Daughter of Queen Victoria, Wife of the Crown Prince of Prussia,
Mother of Kaiser Wilhelm
The Last Romantic: A Biography of Queen Marie of Roumania
The Last Empress
Madame Chiang Kai-shek and the
Birth of Modern China
Hannah Pakula
Simon & Schuster
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Copyright © 2009 by Hannah Pakula
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Pakula, Hannah.
The last empress : Madame Chiang Kai-Shek and the birth of modern China / Hannah Pakula. — 1st Simon & Schuster hardcover ed.
p. cm.
1. Chiang, May-ling Soong, 1897–2003. 2. Presidents’ spouses—China— Biography. 3. Presidents’ spouses—Taiwan—Biography. 4. Chiang, Kai-shek,
1887–1975. 5. China—History—Republic, 1912–1949.
6. Taiwan—History—1945– I. Title.
DS777.488.C515P35 2009
951.04’2092—dc22
[B] 2009017576
ISBN 978-1-4391-4893-8
eISBN 978-1-4391-5423-6
The author wishes to thank the following institutions for access to material reprinted in this book, and in some cases permission to reprint material from their collections:
Georgetown University Libraries Special Collections
Hoover Institution on War, Revolution and Peace
Academia Historica/Chiang Kai-shek Archive, Taipei, Taiwan
Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library/Harry Hopkins Papers
To my friend Barbara Davis,
who has always been there
CONTENTS
AUTHOR’S NOTE
LIST OF PRINCIPAL CHARACTERS
FOREWORD
PART ONE: 1866–1900
PART TWO: 1894–1927
PART THREE: 1928–1936
PART FOUR: 1937–1942
PART FIVE: 1942–1943
PART SIX: 1943–1945
PART SEVEN: 1945–1949
PART EIGHT: 1949–1975
PART NINE 1975–2003
NOTES
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
INDEX
AUTHOR’S NOTE
THERE ARE TWO systems of translating Chinese characters into the English language—Wade-Giles (developed in the mid-nineteenth century and used on Taiwan until 2009) and pinyin (a phonetic system developed by the Communists in the mid-twentieth century). Guided by what the reader is most likely to recognize and the time frame of the book, I have used Wade-Giles or common usage for names of people like Chiang Kai-shek and Sun Yatsen. I have done the same for place names like Canton and Mongolia, occasionally falling back on postal map names, and, in the interest of simplicity, have left out quite a few dashes and apostrophes.
The pitfalls of transliterating Chinese into English are only surpassed by the difficulties of converting Chinese money into American dollars. Because of the constant fluctuation of currencies, their names, and their equivalents, most amounts cited in the book are footnoted on the page with their approximate value in U.S. dollars for that year and, in parenthesis, what those dollars would be worth in 2008.
LIST OF PRINCIPAL CHARACTERS
Acheson, Dean: U.S. secretary of state in the Truman administration.
Allen, Dr. Young J.: Head of the Southern Methodist Mission in Shanghai.
Alsop, Joseph: American journalist and syndicated columnist, related to the Roosevelts.
Arnold, H. H. (“Hap”): The only five-star general in both the U.S. Army and U.S. Air Force.
Belden, Jack: American journalist, one of the group that walked out of Burma with Stilwell.
Blucher, Vasily Konstantinovich: Known as Galen, he was the chief Russian adviser to Chiang Kai-shek at the military school of Whampoa.
Borodin, Mikhail (real name: Mikhail Markovich Gruzenberg): Russian member of the Comintern who organized Sun Yat-sen’s government in the Communist style.
Brooke, Sir Alan (Lord Alanbrooke): Principal military adviser to Winston Churchill during World War II.
Burke, William B.: Charlie Soong’s best friend at school in the United States and in China.
Caldwell, Oliver J.: An officer of the OSS.
Cantlie, Dr. James: A doctor and friend of Sun Yat-sen.
Carr, General Julian Shakespeare: The head of Bull-Durham Tobacco, he was Charlie Soong’s benefactor in the United States.
Chang Ching-chiang (“Curio Chang”): Crippled art and antique dealer who befriended Chiang Kai-shek and probably paid for his second wedding.
Chang Tso-lin: Known as the Old Marshal, he was the warlord of Manchuria.
Chang Tsung-chang: A warlord known as the Monster—huge, powerful, and none too bright.
Chen Cheng: A tough, decent Chinese general who became president of the Executive Yuan.
Chen, Jennie (Ch’en Chieh-ju): Chiang Kai-shek’s second wife.
Chen Chi-mei: Supporter of Sun Yat-sen and patron of Chiang Kai-shek.
Chen, Eugene: Born in Trinidad, he was the brilliant editor of The Shanghai Gazette.
Chen Kuo-fu: The older of the two conservative Chen brothers, who controlled both Chiang’s Kai-shek’s schedule and Chinese thought.
Chen Li-fu: The younger of the Chen brothers, known together as the CC Clique.
Chennault, Anna: The first woman correspondent for China’s Central News Agency and much younger wife of Claire Chennault. After his death, she became a figure in Republican circles of Washington.
Chennault, Claire Lee: Unofficial head of the Chinese air force, he competed with Stilwell for supplies and convinced the Chiangs that his Flying Tigers could win the war for them.
Chen Yi: Corrupt Chinese general named by Chiang as governor of Taiwan after World War II.
Chiang Ching-kuo: Chiang Kai-shek’s only biological son, he was head of the Kuomintang and Taiwan after the death of his father.
Chiang Wei-kuo: Chiang Kai-shek’s adopted son.
Chou En-lai: Second only to Mao Tse-tung in the Chinese Communist Party, he served as its first premier and foreign minister.
Chuikov, Vasilii I.: Chief Soviet military adviser to Chiang Kai-shek.
Chu Teh: The general who became commander-in-chief of the army of the CCP in China.
Cixi (Tzu-hsi): The dowager empress. The last powerful member of the Manchu dynasties, she ruled China from behind a yellow curtain.
Clark-Kerr, Archibald: English diplomat who served as ambassador to China from the late 1930s until 1942.
Cohen, Morris: Known as two-Gun Cohen, once a petty criminal in Canada, he served
as bodyguard to the Suns and was devoted to them both.
Corcoran, Thomas G.: Known as Tommy the Cork by his friends and the first modern lobbyist by his detractors, he chartered China Defense Supplies for Tse-ven (T. V.) Soong.
Coward, Noel: English playwright, composer, and actor known for his highly sophisticated style and wit.
Cowles, Gardner, Jr. (“Mike”): Publisher of Look magazine and many newspapers, he accompanied Wendell Willkie on his world tour in 1942.
Currie, Lauchlin: Named White House economist in 1939, he was invited to China in 1941 and 1942 to help straighten out the country’s finances. Attacked as a Communist after the war, he moved to Colombia.
Davies, John Paton, Jr.: Served in the State Department and as political consultant to General Joseph Stilwell. Won the Medal of Freedom, but was accused of being a communist by Senator McCarthy.
Deng Xiao-ping: A veteran of the Long March and survivor of the Cultural Revolution, he emerged as China’s de facto leader after Mao’s death. He spoke at both Chou En-lai’s and Sun Ching-ling’s funerals.
Dole, Robert J.: Former Republican senator from Kansas who ran for president in 1996. He was seriously wounded in World War II and won three medals for bravery.
Donald, William Henry: An Australian journalist who raised the Chiangs to the status of world icons and became May-ling’s chief adviser.
Donovan, William: Known as Wild Bill, he was head of the OSS during World War II.
Dorn, Colonel Frank: Chief assistant to General Stilwell in China.
Dulles, John Foster: Named secretary of state by Eisenhower, he continued Truman’s policy of neutralization of the Taiwan Strait.
Du Yueh-sen: “Big-eared Du” organized and controlled the opium market in Shanghai and in his later life was known as a philanthropist.
Fairbank, John K.: Reknowned academic and historian of China, who worked for the OSS and the Office of War Information in Chungking during World War II.
Falkenhausen, Alexander von: General who headed the German military mission to China.
Farmer, Rhodes: Australian journalist, whose story on Japanese atrocities earned him a place on their death list. He also edited Madame Chiang’s first book—a collection of her articles.
Feng Yu-hsiang: “The Christian General,” probably the most colorful of the Chinese warlords.
Gabrielson, Eric: Norwegian ship’s captain who befriended Charlie Soong.
Galen: See Blucher.
Gandhi, Mohandas: Usually referred to as Mahatma (“Great Soul”) Gandhi, he met the Chiangs on their trip to India and was not impressed with the generalissimo.
Gauss, Clarence E.: American ambassador to China during World War II (1941–44), whose warnings about the unreliability of the Chinese government were often ignored.
Gellhorn, Martha: Famous American journalist who met the Chiangs while reporting on World War II.
Gould, Randall: Old China hand who wrote for The Nation and later for The Shanghai Post.
Hakka General (real name: Chen Chiung-ming): A southern warlord who was trusted by Sun Yat-sen but not by Chiang Kai-shek.
Harriman, W. Averill: Democratic politician and diplomat who served as President Roosevelt’s special envoy to Europe and ambassador to the Soviet Union during World War II.
Hart, Robert: Honest, beloved, and efficient head of Imperial Maritime Customs Service, which collected customs duties for the Chinese Government.
Hay, John: American diplomat responsible for the so-called Open Door Policy.
Ho Ying-chin: The highly corrupt general who controlled military affairs in China.
Hoover, J. Edgar: The first director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation.
Hopkins, Harry: Close friend and adviser to President Roosevelt, he was known as the Deputy President.
Hornbeck, Stanley K.: Chief of the U.S. State Department Division of Far Eastern Affairs from 1928 to 1937 and special adviser to the secretary of state during World War II.
Howard, Roy W.: Chairman of the board of Scripps-Howard News Service and friend of the Chiangs.
Hsiang, V. S.: Mow Pang-tsu’s executive officer who helped uncover the corruption in the purchase of military equipment for China.
Hsu, General Chung-chih: Third in line to inherit the leadership of the Kuomintang until he deserted his post in the city of Waichow.
Hu Han-min: A conservative, he and his brother, Hu Yin, were second and third in line to inherit the leadership of the KMT.
Huang Jin-rong: Known as Pockmarked Huang; a major figure in Shanghai crime.
Hurley, Major General Patrick J.: Colorful character sent by President Roosevelt to China to bring the Nationalists and Communists together.
Hu Shih: A onetime pupil of Charlie Soong who became China’s ambassador to the U.S. (1938–42).
Joffe, Adolf: He held secret meetings with Sun Yat-sen and signed an agreement of cooperation between Sun’s government and the Chinese Communist Party.
Johnson, Nelson T.: U.S. minister, later ambassador, to China, 1929–41.
Judd, Walter: Doctor and medical missionary in China, he became a member of the House of Representatives from Minnesota. One of the idealistic members of the China Lobby.
Kerr, George H.: U.S. diplomat and influential commentator on Taiwan politics.
Kissanka: An anti-Chiang Russian agent sent to take Borodin’s place in China.
Kohlberg, Alfred: A rich merchant active in the China Lobby and the search for Communists in high places.
Koo, Wellington: Famous Chinese diplomat who served as ambassador to the United States and Britain.
Kung, David: The elder of the two Kung boys, who accompanied Aunty May on her visit to the United States.
Kung, Louis: The younger Kung son, who acted as a “courier” for the China Lobby, went into the oil business, and married a movie star.
Kung Hsiang-hsi (H. H.): The seventy-fifth lineal descendant of Confucius, who married May-ling’s elder sister Ai-ling and became China’s minister of finance.
Kung, Jeanette: The younger of the two Kung girls. An obvious lesbian in a day when most women stayed in the closet, she accompanied her aunt to the United States dressed like a boy.
Kung, Rosamond: The elder of the two Kung girls, she helped her aunt in her (May-ling’s) later years.
La Guardia, Fiorello: Mayor of New York from 1934 to 1945.
Lambert, Eleanor: The doyenne of fashion of her day and a friend of Madame Chiang.
Lattimore, Owen: China scholar sent to China to help Chiang Kai-shek with political problems.
Lee Teng-hui: The first democratically elected president of Taiwan, he was expelled from the KMT when he founded a new party.
Leonard, Royal: Pilot for Young Marshal Chang (Hsueh-liang), he ended up working for the Chinese air force.
Li Li-san: The de facto head of the CCP from 1928 to 1930, who clashed with Mao over communist theory.
Li Tsung-jen: Leader of the Warlords’ Council, which Chiang defeated in the late 1920s, he became vice president in 1948 and took over when Chiang retired.
Lin Shiliang: A confidential assistant to H. H. Kung, involved in a smuggling scheme.
Lin Yutang: Chinese writer and philosopher.
Liu Chen-huan: Warlord of Kwansi province. In spite of his profiteering from opium and brothels in Canton, Sun Yat-sen dubbed him “Living Angel Liu” because he had been wounded fighting for the city.
Luce, Claire Boothe: Journalist, editor, playwright, and member of the House of Representatives, she traveled with her husband to China, where she met the Chiangs and became one of Madame’s most enthusiastic admirers.
Luce, Henry: Publisher of Time, Life, and Fortune magazines, he was an unequivocal supporter of China and the Chiangs.
MacArthur, Douglas: Commander of the U.S. Army Forces in the Far East during World War II, he served as head of the United Nations Forces in the Korean War before being dismissed for not adhering to President Truman’s policies.
M
cCarthy, Joseph: Senator from Wisconsin who claimed that the United States was riddled with Soviet spies and who hounded many unfortunate people out of government and the arts.
Magruder, John: Brigadier general who headed a U.S. military mission to China in 1941.
Mao Fu-mei: Chiang Kai-shek’s first wife, to whom he was married at the age of fourteen.
Maring (real name Hendricus Sneevliet): Dutch Communist who convinced Sun Yat-sen to ally his revolutionary party with the Russians.
Marshall, General George C.: Sent to China to try to bring the Kuomintang and the Chinese Communist Party together.
McHugh, James M.: Naval attaché in the American Embassy and officer in charge of Far Eastern secret intelligence, he was a friend of Donald and the Chiangs.
McTyeire, Bishop Holland N.: Chancellor of Vanderbilt University, head of the Southern Methodist Mission in China.
Mills, Emma DeLong: May-ling’s best friend at Wellesley. Their friendship continued on and off after college.
Morgenthau, Henry, Jr.: President Roosevelt’s secretary of the Treasury. He did not trust the Chinese, but loaned them millions in accordance with Roosevelt’s wishes.
Mountbatten, Lord Louis: Supreme Commander of the Southeast Asia Command, member of the English royal family.
Mow Pang-tsu: Former brother-in-law of Chiang Kai-shek who reported corruption in the purchase of military supplies for China.
New Shan-chow: May-ling’s uncle, married to one of her mother’s sisters and an old friend of her father.
Nehru, Jawaharlal: The first prime minister of India.
Oursler, Fulton: American writer, editor, and journalist, whose writing was based on Christian themes except for a series of detective novels, written under various pseudonyms.
Oursler, Grace: Fulton’s wife and a friend of Madame Chiang, who helped her with her book about faith, The Sure Victory. Oursler started her career writing what were called “racy” novels under the pseudonym Dora Macy.
Pai Chung-hsi: An important general and close associate of Li Tsung-jen, who was named minister of defense after World War II and worked for Chiang Kai-shek in Taiwan.