George Washington
Page 52
Courtesy of the Mount Vernon Ladies’ Association
The reconstructed house at Ferry Farm, across the Rappahannock River from Fredericksburg, where Washington lived from the age of six until he leased Mount Vernon from his half-brother Lawrence’s widow during the French and Indian War.
Courtesy of the George Washington Foundation
A print version of this painting of the Washington family—George and Martha with Martha’s grandchildren, Eleanor Parke Custis and George Washington Parke Custis—gained wide circulation during his presidency. The enslaved servant to the side is Washington’s valet, either William Lee or Christopher Sheels.
Courtesy of the National Gallery of Art
Having lost teeth steadily throughout his life, Washington as president endured the daily agony of inserting this metal-and-ivory contraption into his mouth. His false dentures included material from elephants and walruses, as well as human teeth purchased from the enslaved.
Courtesy of the Mount Vernon Ladies’ Association
George William Fairfax was Washington’s next-door neighbor at Belvoir estate and his intimate friend from youth until Fairfax moved to England shortly before the Revolutionary War. The Fairfax family was critical to Washington’s advancement.
Bridgeman Images
CAREER
Lieutenant Governor Robert Dinwiddie of Virginia was an experienced merchant and colonial official. He appointed Washington to several key early posts, though their relationship ultimately became rancorous.
NPG/London
Called “that little thing upon the meadow” by an Indian ally, Washington’s Virginians suffered a bloody defeat at Fort Necessity at the hands of a combined force of French and Indians in 1754. Washington signed a controversial capitulation in order to withdraw his surviving troops.
Author’s collection
In one of the worst failures of British arms in history, General Edward Braddock’s column suffered roughly two-thirds casualties at the Battle of the Monongahela in 1755. Washington, in the thick of the hours-long battle, survived without a scratch.
Courtesy of the Wisconsin Historical Society
From 1759 to 1775, Washington served as a legislator—mostly in the Virginia House of Burgesses in this Williamsburg capitol building. He also served in the Continental Congress and the Second Virginia Convention of 1775. He was a legislator for several years longer than he held military positions.
Wikimedia Commons
Washington confided great trust in General Nathanael Greene of Rhode Island, often assigning him to the most difficult tasks facing the Continental Army.
Courtesy of Independence National Historical Park
Though portraits sometimes portrayed Washington as almost stout, this image by John Trumbull in 1780 matches more closely contemporary descriptions of him as slender but powerful.
Courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art
After his great victory at Saratoga, Major General Horatio Gates angled to replace Washington as senior commander of the American forces, but Washington thwarted the effort.
Courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art
The Battle of Monmouth Court House in late June 1778, on a day of scorching heat, brought Washington’s Continentals the battlefield victory that they had prepared for at Valley Forge.
Courtesy of University of California, Berkeley Art Museum and Pacific Film Archive, gift of Mrs. Mark Hopkins
In late December 1783, Washington submitted to Congress his resignation from the Continental Army. By relinquishing his position and power, Washington won the trust of his countrymen and amazed many Europeans.
Courtesy of the Architect of the Capitol
The Constitutional Convention adopted a charter of government with the key elements Washington sought: a central government that was stronger than the states, had the power to tax, and was led by a true executive department.
Courtesy of the Architect of the Capitol
James Madison of Virginia, though a generation younger than Washington, was his closest political confidant through the critical period between the Revolutionary War and the adoption of the Constitution, and during the first year of Washington’s presidency.
Courtesy of Bowdoin College Museum of Art, Brunswick, Maine, bequest of the Honorable James Bowdoin III
Washington relied on the country’s first secretary of state, Thomas Jefferson, for diplomatic and political advice, but his fellow Virginian retired after four years in office, leaving the president with only Federalist advisers.
Courtesy of Independence National Historical Park
An impecunious immigrant from the West Indies, Alexander Hamilton served as Washington’s army aide then his secretary of the treasury. Though Washington parted from many political colleagues throughout his long career, he and Hamilton were allies to the end.
Courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art
Wife of the British minister to the United States at the end of the Washington presidency, Henrietta Liston admired Washington and shrewdly analyzed his political methods.
Courtesy of the National Gallery of Art
GEORGE WASHINGTON PORTRAITS
Portrayed in uniform during the Revolutionary War, Washington’s pose was confident and self-assured. Because of his calm demeanor at all times, according to a French officer, “Everyone regards him as his friend and father.” Portrait by Charles Willson Peale, 1779–80.
Courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art
This 1783 portrait by Robert Edge Pine records the advance of age on Washington’s face and captures him in a contemplative moment.
Courtesy of the National Portrait Gallery, Smithsonian Institution
This 1789 miniature keeps President Washington in his military uniform but also shows some of the weariness that made him reluctant to assume the presidency.
Courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art
Painted by a Swedish artist in 1794, near the end of Washington’s presidency, this image emphasizes the president’s vitality and intelligence.
Courtesy of the Mount Vernon Ladies’ Association
Gilbert Stuart painted this iconic image of Washington and profited handsomely from the brisk market for Washington images.
Courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art
Acknowledgments
To write this book, I have imposed upon a phalanx of fellow writers and researchers, librarians and archivists. That they have so willingly shared their expertise and insights has been a great and undeserved blessing, for which I am grateful. A mention in the back of the book is a poor reward for their efforts, but that is what is in my power to extend.
This book has taken shape in two places in addition to my home office: my home away from home at the Library of Congress, and at George Washington’s home at Mount Vernon, where I had a supported fellowship at the Fred W. Smith National Library for the Study of George Washington. Both provided workspace and extraordinary access to essential materials, but far more valuable in both places has been conversation with knowledgeable people. Though I have been helped through crises of the moment by a dozen and more librarians and staff members at the Library of Congress, I benefitted from special attention from Julie Miller, Historian of Early America; Jeff Flannery, maestro of the Manuscript Room; Edward Redmond of the Geography and Map Division; and Thomas Mann, reference librarian extraordinaire. At Mount Vernon, I benefitted from working and speaking with so many, from the boss, Douglas Bradburn, to library director Kevin Butterfield to Samantha Snyder, reference librarian. I must specially note three historians working at Mount Vernon during my stay whose fellowship and insights were so valuable—Mary V.
Thompson of Mount Vernon (and a fellow Staten Islander), George Goodwin, and Brian Steele.
Then there are the many authors and students of history who have responded to my annoying questions and befuddlements with unfailing courtesy and generosity, sharing the expertise they have built over years and decades: Henry Wiencek, Mark Lender, Brent Tarter, Jon Kukla, Colin Calloway, Hamilton Bryson, Thomas B. Allen, and (again) Mary V. Thompson. Thank you. I have profited greatly from comments on the evolving manuscript from friends and scholars: Gregory May, James McGrath Morris, Kenneth R. Bowling, and (yet again) Mary V. Thompson.
I owe a great debt to the many reference librarians and archivists who have assisted me in tracking down obscure items, including those at the Rosenbach in Philadelphia, the Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library at Princeton University, the Connecticut Historical Society, the Maryland Historical Society, the New York Public Library, the John D. Rockefeller Library at Colonial Williamsburg, the Virginia State Library, the Fairfax County Circuit Court Historic Records Center, the Fairfax City Regional Public Library, the Martha Washington Papers Project, and the British Library. I enjoyed access to the Georgetown University Library through support from William Treanor, dean of the law school, and Professor John Mikhail.
For this volume, I have embarked on a new publishing relationship with Dutton, a long-distinguished imprint now residing in the Penguin Random House galaxy. I have been fortunate in my editor, Brent Howard, a careful student of history who has been welcoming and supportive. I also appreciate the assistance of copy editor Rachelle Mandik and publicist Jamie Knapp.
I dedicate this book to my sons and daughter, of whom I am proud every day. Their mother, Nancy, remains the great blessing of my life.
A Note on Sources
Much of the research for this book involved reviewing the correspondence of Washington and five of his contemporaries, which has been assembled over decades by flotillas of noble archivists and scholars and is now available through the National Archives online website, www.founders.archives.gov. Those sources are abbreviated in these notes, as follows:
The Adams Papers (AP)
The Papers of Benjamin Franklin (PBF)
The Papers of Alexander Hamilton (PAH)
The Papers of Thomas Jefferson (PTJ)
The Papers of James Madison (PJM)
The Papers of George Washington (GWP)
I have cited these papers by date only, as the collections are searchable online; also the date can be used to find the documents in the bound volumes for those still dwelling in an analog world.
For other frequently cited sources, I have used the following abbreviations:
Annals of Congress (accessible through the Library of Congress home page, www.memory.loc.gov) (Annals of Congress).
Ballagh, James Curtis, ed. The Letters of Richard Henry Lee. New York: Da Capo Press (1970) (Ballagh, Letters of Richard Henry Lee).
Brock, R. A., ed. The Official Records of Robert Dinwiddie, lieutenant-governor of the colony of Virginia, 1751–1758. Richmond: Virginia Historical Society (1883), vols. 1–2 (Dinwiddie Records).
Carlyle, J. F., The Personal and Family Correspondence of Colonel John Carlyle of Alexandria, Virginia, https://www.novaparks.com/sites/default/files/John%20Carlyle%201720-1780%20Annotated%20Correspondence_0.pdf (Carlyle Correspondence).
Chernow, Ron. Washington: A Life. New York: Penguin Press (2010) (Chernow).
Chesnutt, David R., and C. James Taylor. The Papers of Henry Laurens. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, vols. 11–15 (1988–2000) (Chesnutt & Taylor, Laurens Papers).
Documentary History of the Ratification of the Constitution. John P. Kaminski, Gaspare J. Saladino, Richard Leffler, Charles H. Schoenleber, and Margaret A. Hogan, eds. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press (2009–2019) (DHRC).
Documentary History of the First Federal Elections. Merrill Jensen, Robert A. Becker, and Gordon DenBoer, eds. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press (1976–1989) (DHFFE).
Documentary History of the First Federal Congress. Linda Grant De Pauw, Charlene Bangs Bickford, Kenneth R. Bowling, and Helen E. Veit, eds. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press (1972–2017) (DHFFC).
Executive Journals of the Council of Colonial Virginia, vols. 5 and 6. Richmond: The Virginia State Library (1945, 1966) (Executive Journals).
Farrand, Max, ed. The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787, vols. 1–3. New Haven: Yale University Press (1911) (Farrand).
Flexner, James Thomas. George Washington, vols. 1–4. Boston: Little, Brown & Co. (1965–1969) (Flexner).
Freeman, Douglas Southall. George Washington: A Biography, vols. 1–6. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons (1948–1954) (Freeman).
George Washington Papers, Library of Congress Digital Collection (GW/LOC Digital Collection).
Gibbs, George, ed. Oliver Wolcott’s Memoirs of the Administrations of Washington and Adams. New York (1846) (Gibbs, Wolcott Memoirs).
James, Alfred Proctor, ed. Writings of General John Forbes. Menasha: The Collegiate Press (1938) (James, Forbes Writings).
Journals of the Continental Congress (accessible through the Library of Congress website, www.memory.loc.gov) (JCC).
Journals of the House of Burgesses of Virginia, 1752–1755, 1756–1758, 1758–1761, 1761–1765, 1766–1769, 1770–1772, 1773–1776. Richmond: The Colonial Press (1906–1909) (Journals of the House of Burgesses).
Lee Family Archive (available online at www.leefamilyarchive.org) (Lee Family Digital Archive).
Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography (PMHB).
Reese, George Henkle. The Official Papers of Francis Fauquier, Lieutenant Governor of Virginia, 1758–1768. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia (1980) (Reese, Fauquier Papers).
Showman, Richard K., Margaret Cobb, and Robert E. McCarthy. The Papers of General Nathanael Greene, vols. 1–13. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press (1976–2005) (Showman, Greene Papers).
Smith, Paul H., Gerard W. Gawalt, Rosemary Fry Plakas, and Eugene R. Sheridan, Letters of Delegates to Congress. Washington: Library of Congress (1976– ) (accessible through the Library of Congress website, www.memory.loc.gov) (Letters of Delegates).
Stevens, S. K., Donald H. Kent, and Autumn L. Leonard. The Papers of Henry Bouquet. Harrisburg: The Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission (1951) (Stevens, Bouquet Papers).
Stewart, Irene, ed. Letters of General John Forbes relating to the Expedition Against Fort Duquesne in 1758. Pittsburgh: Colonial Dames of America (1927) (Forbes Letters).
Virginia Magazine of History and Biography (VMHB).
William & Mary Quarterly (WMQ).
Zagarri, Rosemary, ed. David Humphreys’ ‘Life of General Washington’ with George Washington’s ‘Remarks.’ Athens: University of Georgia Press (1991) (Zagarri, Humphreys).
When quoting from correspondence and other primary sources, I have sometimes modernized spelling, capitalization, and punctuation without altering the words actually used.
Notes
1. TIME FOR A NEW PLAN
1. Robert Stewart to Robert Dinwiddie, 9 November 1757, GWP.
2. To Charles Green, 13 November 1757, GWP.
3. To Sally Fairfax, 15 November 1757, GWP.
4. At age eleven, Washington inherited ten slaves when his father died, though they stayed at the family’s Ferry Farm in Fredericksburg. He acquired another eight slaves upon the death of his half-brother Lawrence ten years later, and controlled eighteen slaves under his lease of Mount Vernon. A few of the enslaved people worked on lands in the Shenandoah valley that Washington purchased with his earnings as a surveyor. Memorandum, 10 December 1754, GWP (disposition of slaves under Lawrence Washington’s will); Flexner 1:286; Philip D. Morgan, “‘To Get Quit of Negroes’: George Washington and Slavery,” J. American Studies 39:40
3, 406 (2005); from Christopher Hardwick, 3 August 1758, GWP.
5. To Sally Fairfax, 15 November 1757, GWP.
6. To Dinwiddie, 24 September 1757, GWP; to Colonel John Stanwix, 8 October 1757, GWP.
7. To Warner Lewis, 14 August 1755, GWP; to Carter Burwell, Robert Orme, 20 April 1755, GWP.
8. Zagarri, Humphreys, 47; see Paul K. Longmore, The Invention of George Washington, Berkeley: University of California Press (1988), 2; David S. Shields, “George Washington: Publicity, Probity, and Power,” in Tamara Harvey and Greg O’Brien, eds., George Washington’s South, Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida (2003), 144.
9. E.g., to Richard Washington, 26 December 1757, GWP; to Thomas Knox, 26 December 1757 and January 1758, GWP.
10. From George Mason, 4 January 1758, GWP; from John Stanwix, 13 January 1758, GWP.
11. From John Blair, 25 January 1758, GWP; to John Blair, 30 January 1758 and 31 January 1758, GWP. In Fredericksburg, he met with Dr. John Sutherland, see note 4 to letter from GW to John Stanwix, 4 March 1758, GWP; to Sarah Cary Fairfax, 13 February 1758, GWP. A friend in Williamsburg, the lawyer Robert Carter Nicholas, wrote in early February to express his delight that the report was untrue that Colonel Washington was no more. “I have heard of letters from the dead,” Nicholas replied, adding that he had not before “had the pleasure of receiving one.” From Robert Carter Nicholas, 6 February 1758, GWP.