by Eric Reed
133. Chambre de Commerce et d’Industrie (CCI) de Pau, Les chiffres du Béarn, 14 – 15.
134. H. Peyrou, interview by author, tape recording, Pau, March 15, 1999; B. Kalmoun, interview by author, tape recording, Pau, March 11, 1999; J. Touyarot, interview by author, tape recording, Pau, March 19, 1999.
135. Ibid.
136. Scholars of the contemporary Tour assert that the event continues to be a signifi cant commercial boon to host towns. Judith Grant Long concludes that the Tour is a “bargain” for host towns that brings “tremendous amenity value to area residents.” Michel Desbordes estimates that the race’s visit to Digne in 2005 resulted in a net injection of €326,000 into the local economy and a signifi cant boost to the city’s image recognition. Long, “Tour de France,” 382; Desbordes, “A Review of Economic Impact Studies,” 535 – 37.
137. Elf- Aquitaine, Elf- Aquitaine des origines à 1989, 51– 53.
138. Syndicat d’Initiative de Pau, Pau, livret- guide, 26 – 36.
139. Conseil- Général du Département des Pyrénées- Atlantiques, “Le Tour de France en
n o t e s t o p a g e s 1 3 8 – 1 4 8
221
Pyrénées- Atlantiques,” (press packet), CCI de Pau, 1996; City of Pau offi cial Internet site, http://
www .pau .fr, accessed January 14, 2014.
140. Weber, Peasants into Frenchmen.
Chapter Six
1. Antenne 2, “Sports été,” July 27, 1986, INA online.
2. Scholte, Globalization, 16 – 19, 74 – 87; Osterhammel and Petersson, Globalization, x – xi, 113 – 40.
3. Briggs and Burke, A Social History of the Media, 153 – 54; Murray, The World’s Game, 152 – 60.
4. Arjun Appadurai invoked this phenomenon as illustrative of the deterritorialized “sub-jectiveness” of the individual experience in the globalized setting. Appadurai, Modernity at Large, 4.
5. Such mutual exchanges of personnel, actors, cinematic style, and commerce between Europe and America have long been a hallmark of the fi lm industry despite Hollywood’s commercial hegemony for much of the twentieth century. See esp. Schwartz, It’s So French! ; Nowell-Smith and Ricci, Hollywood and Europe.
6. Paul Dietschy notes these parallel trends by highlighting French sporting “exceptionalism” and the important role of “French networks [in] facilitating the spread of sports across the globe” since the nineteenth century. Dietschy, “French Sport,” 509 – 10, 22 – 23.
7. Between 1949 and 1961, the number of journalists in the race caravan grew from approximately 400 to 500, according to estimates of Tour offi cials. La IVe République des Pyrénées, July 1, 1949. Dernières Nouvelles d’Alsace, July 1, 1961.
8. Jessica Gienow- Hecht makes a similar characterization of journalists as agents of transnational cultural exchange in her history of Die Neue Zeitung, the daily German newspaper created by the American occupation government. Gienow- Hecht, Transmission Impossible.
9. Times (London), July 5, 1967.
10. Times (London), June 24, 1981.
11. New York Times, July 9, 1961.
12. New York Times, July 8, 1966.
13. Los Angeles Times, July 26, 1982.
14. Los Angeles Times, July 18, 1984.
15. Times (London), July 21, 1958.
16. New York Times, July 17, 1966.
17. New York Times, July 20, 1969.
18. New York Times, July 6, 1958.
19. New York Times, July 18, 1991.
20. Times (London), October 11, 1971.
21. Times (London), August 7, 1965.
22. Times (London), July 7, 1968.
23. New York Times, July 9, 1966; July 5, 1961; July 7, 1960; Independent, July 15, 1999; Times (London), July 21, 1958; Reading (PA) Eagle, November 28, 1963, GNA.
24. New York Times, July 18, 1984.
25. New York Times, July 11, 1965; Los Angeles Times, June 28, 1959, and July 26, 1982.
26. Times (London), January 21, 1982, and July 5, 1967.
222
n o t e s t o p a g e s 1 4 8 – 1 5 5
27. Chicago Tribune, June 12, 1955.
28. New York Times, July 6, 1958. The Fourth Republic collapsed and Charles de Gaulle took emergency powers as premier on June 1, 1958.
29. Chicago Tribune, July 25, 1986.
30. Los Angeles Times, August 11, 1957.
31. On the Tour as a metaphor for suffering, triumph, masculine prowess, and national honor, see Thompson, The Tour de France, 110 – 40.
32. Los Angeles Times, July 26, 1982.
33. New York Times, February 28, 1960.
34. New York Times, July 17, 1962.
35. Times (London), February 28, 1984.
36. Times (London), June 27, July 4, 11 and 18, 1981.
37. Rioux and Sirinelli, Histoire culturelle de la France, 326.
38. Bourg and Gouguet, Analyse économique du sport, 196.
39. Kuhn, The Media in France, 172 – 78; Goetschel and Loyer, Histoire culturelle et intellectuelle, 171.
40. Clastres and Dietschy, Sport, culture et société en France, 207.
41. Bourg and Gouguet, Analyse économique du sport, 218, 245.
42. Enquète SOFRES, May 1990, cited in ibid., 224.
43. Les Echos, July 25, 1994.
44. Le Monde, July 14, 1997.
45. Jean- Marie Leblanc, interview by Christophe Penot, in Penot, Jean- Marie Leblanc, 232.
46. On the powerful commercial and cultural impact of television on French professional sport after 1945, see Moneghetti, Tétart, and Wille, “De la plume à l’écran.”
47. CSA, Lettre de l’économie du sport, March 5, 2004, cited in Nys, “Trois aspects de l’économie du sport,” 246.
48. LNF Infos, 42, March 2002, 6 – 7, cited in Hare, Football in France, 147.
49. Holt and Mason, Sport in Britain, 123.
50. The F.A. Premier League, Premier League Annual Report 2006/2007, 38 – 40.
51. The F.A. Premier League, Premier League Season Review 2010/11, 59.
52. On the links between the cultural and commercial history of baseball and the evolution of American law, see White, Creating the National Pastime.
53. Per- game attendance dipped by approximately 15 percent between 1949 and 1969. Rader, Baseball, 173.
54. Tygiel, “The Shot Heard ‘Round the World,” 178 – 79.
55. Rader, Baseball, 178; New York Times, July 3, 2012.
56. New York Times, July 14, 1984; Los Angeles Times, September 19, 1986.
57. The short- lived Coors Classic stage race was the direct model for the “Hell of the West.”
58. New York Times, May 5, 1989.
59. New York Times, May 16, 1989.
60. Miami News, July 8, 1981, GNA.
61. Sports Illustrated, July 13, 1981.
62. For an enlightening and entertaining sporting history of the Coors Classic and narratives of American cyclists’ triumphs at home and abroad, see Dzierzak, The Evolution of American Bicycle Racing.
63. Free Lance- Star (VA), November 9, 1982, GNA.
64. New York Times, January 17, 1983.
n o t e s t o p a g e s 1 5 6 – 1 6 3
223
65. Deseret News (Salt Lake City), March 31, 1983, GNA.
66. Free Lance- Star (VA), April 7 and 8, 1983, GNA.
67. The article is quoted to include its poor French grammar. Free Lance- Star (VA), April 9, 1983, GNA.
68. New York Times January 17, 1983, and March 12, 1983.
69. Free Lance- Star (VA), March 5 and April 11, 1983, GNA.
70. New York Times, May 5, 1989.
71. Sports Illustrated, May 22, 1989; New York Times, May 16, 1989.
72. New York Times, May 15, 1989.
73. Sports Illustrated, May 22, 1989.
74. New York Times, May 13, 1992.
75. New York Times, May 15, 1990.
76. New York Times, May 13, 1992.
77. Free Lance- Star (VA), December 19, 1996, GNA.
/> 78. Washington Post, November 1, 1996.
79. Libération, July 1, 1987, CL 91 AH 102.
80. Chany, La fabuleuse histoire du Tour de France, 933 – 47.
81. The Tour issued invitations to teams according to the world rankings as calculated by the UCI. The STF issued several “wild card” invitations each year, often to French teams to bolster the French presence in the peloton.
82. In these calculations, some cycling teams categorized as French had both French and non- French corporate sponsors. I assume that the largest share of funding for these teams was provided by the French corporate partners, since French men accounted for nearly all the team riders. Chany, La fabuleuse histoire du Tour de France, 922 – 23, 933 – 34, 954 – 55, 970 – 71.
83. Teams are categorized according to the nationality of the majority of the riders or of the team’s primary corporate sponsor. Some categorizations are problematic. For example, 7- Eleven, a chain of American convenience stores, sponsored successful teams that included only a handful of American riders. Panasonic, Hitachi, and Toshiba, three Japanese electronics companies, sponsored teams in the Tour that included no Japanese cyclists. Ibid., 933 – 55.
84. Programme offi ciel du Tour de France 1980, BN.
85. The major underwriters in 1995 were Crédit Lyonnais Bank, Champion (a chain of French supermarkets), Fiat (the Italian car manufacturer), and Coca- Cola.
86. On the Women’s Tour de France, see Thompson, The Tour de France, 132 – 38.
87. Jacques Goddet, interview by author, tape recording, Issy- les- Moulineaux, France, July 2, 1999.
88. Le Monde, April 3, 1987; “Prévision de Conference de Presse de M. Félix Lévitan,”
March 30 and April 2, 1987, APPP L- 11/92512; Richard Marillier, Le vélo s’y prête, 177.
89. Le Monde, July 4, 1987.
90. Naquet- Radiguet served in his post at the Tour for only one year. Xavier Louy acted as the interim Tour director in 1988. Goddet, L’équipée belle, 462.
91. Marillier, Le vélo s’y prête, 180; Goddet, L’équipée belle, 465; Jean- Marie Leblanc, interview by Christophe Penot, in Penot, Jean- Marie Leblanc, 207.
92. Jean- Marie Leblanc, interview by Christophe Penot, in Penot, Jean- Marie Leblanc, 77; Marillier, Le vélo s’y prête, 179.
93. Le Monde, July 7, 1989; Penot, Jean- Marie Leblanc, 35 – 58, 109, 161– 63, 171– 76, 207.
94. L’Équipe, July 4 – 5, 1987.
95. Le Monde, October 22, 1988.
224
n o t e s t o p a g e s 1 6 3 – 1 7 0
96. Capital, September 1997, CL 162 AH 13.
97. Bourg and Gouguet, Analyse économique du sport, 233.
98. Le Monde, August 3, 1998.
99. Le Monde, July 4, 1987.
100. L’Équipe, July 2, 1987.
101. Vélo Magazine 218, February 1987; Le Monde, April 10, 1995.
102. Luc Derieux, interview by author, tape recording, Paris, November 12, 1998; Jean- Marie Leblanc, interview by Christophe Penot, in Penot, Jean- Marie Leblanc, 229 – 30; Marillier, Le vélo s’y prête, 178 – 79.
103. Le Monde, July 4, 1987. Crédit Lyonnais’s Luc Derieux also employed the term “circus”
to describe the pre- 1987 Tour. Luc Derieux, interview by author, tape recording, Paris, November 12, 1998.
104. Programme offi ciel du Tour de France 1980, inside of back cover page, BN; Programme offi ciel du Tour de France 1983, 95, BN.
105. Société du Tour de France, Programme offi ciel du Tour de France 1995.
106. In 1998, Tour Club members paid the STF between seventeen and twenty million francs, offi cial partners paid between three and seven million francs, and offi cial providers paid between two and three million francs. Le Monde, August 3, 1998.
107. Vélo Magazine, June 1988, cited in Penot, Jean- Marie Leblanc, 234; Le Point, July 6, 1996, CL 150 AH 19; Luc Derieux, interview by author, tape recording, Paris, November 12, 1998.
108. Le Point, April 14, 2008.
109. El País, June 22, 2008.
110. USA Today, February 29, 2008.
111. Tour de France offi cial website television guide, http:// www .letour .fr /tour /guide _tv1
.html, accessed June 20, 2002.
112. Nike gained six places in the annual poll between 1992 and 1995. In a similar poll in 1997, Coca- Cola placed second and Nike fourth. L’Événementiel, March 1996 and January 1997, CL 162 AH 13.
113. Luc Derieux, interview by author, tape recording, Paris, November 12, 1998; Daniel Isaac (Crédit Lyonnais executive in charge of sports sponsorship after Luc Derieux’s retirement), interview by author, tape recording, Paris, October 17, 1998.
114. Tendences, July 2, 1987; La Tribune de l’Économie, August 26, 1997; Les Echos, August 20, 1997, CL 162 AH 13.
115. Félix Lévitan, “Tour de France 1987, Exposé de Félix Lévitan” [press release], CL 042 AH
025; Le Monde, April 3, 1987; Les Echos, July 25, 1994; Le Monde, August 3, 1998; Le Parisien libéré, July 23, 1999. The STF’s accounting books have never been opened to the public. The revenue fi gures include all revenues generated by the races that the STF organizes. It is safe to assume that the Tour de France, the STF’s crown jewel, accounted for the majority of the company’s revenues directly and indirectly.
116. Trubeck, Haute Cuisine.
117. Schwartz, It’s So French!
Chapter Seven
1. New York Times, June 28, 1959.
2. Ibid.
n o t e s t o p a g e s 1 7 1 – 1 8 2
225
3. Times (London), July 15, 1964.
4. New York Times, July 6, 1961.
5. New York Times, July 17, 1961.
6. New York Times, May 15, 1962.
7. New York Times, May 17, 1963.
8. New York Times, June 28, 1959.
9. Times (London), July 15, 1964; New York Times, May 15, 1962; July 16, 1962.
10. Sports Illustrated, February 5, 1968.
11. Sports Illustrated, February 21, 1966.
12. New York Times, February 10, 1968.
13. New York Times, May 18, 1964.
14. Times (London), July 13 and 14, 1964.
15. New York Times, March 19, 1972.
16. Times (London), July 7, 1968.
17. New York Times, July 15, 1965.
18. Times (London), August 10, 1967.
19. New York Times, September 29, 1967.
20. New York Times, October 17, 1971; Chicago Tribune, October 24, 1971; Sports Illustrated, June 30, 1969. The Chicago Tribune reprinted verbatim the drug use exposé, written by researcher Jack Scott, run by the New York Times a week earlier.
21. New York Times, July 23, 1978.
22. Christian Science Monitor, April 24, 1965.
23. Sports Illustrated, June 29, 1981.
24. New York Times, July 19, 1981.
25. Boston Globe, July 18, 1981.
26. Spokane (WA) Spokesman- Review, July 2, 1982, GNA.
27. United States Bicycling Hall of Fame, http:// www .usbhof .org /inductee - by - year /61
- jacques - boyer, accessed January 15, 2014.
28. Sports Illustrated, September 3, 1984.
29. New York Times, July 30, 1986.
30. People, August 11, 1986.
31. L’Humanité, July 6, 1990.
32. NBC Nightly News, July 22, 1984, VUTNA.
33. NBC Nightly News, July 24, 1986, VUTNA.
34. NBC Nightly News, July 27, 1986, VUTNA.
35. People, August 11, 1986.
36. People, August 7, 1989.
37. Sports Illustrated, December 25, 1989.
38. New York Times, September 1, 1989.
39. New York Times, March 4, 1999.
40. New York Times, May 14, 1990.
41. New York Times, May 4, 1990, May 13, 1992; Register- Guard (Eugene, OR), May 7, 1992, GNA.
42. L’Humanité, July 1, 1991.
43. CNN, July 26, 1999, VU
TNA.
44. A2, “Journal A2,” July 25, 1999, INA online.
226
n o t e s t o p a g e s 1 8 3 – 1 9 3
45. Le Monde, July 25, 1999.
46. Armstrong’s fi rst autobiography discusses at length his struggle to overcome cancer and his victory in the 1999 Tour. Armstrong, It’s Not about the Bike.
47. Dallas Morning News, July 2, 1999.
48. Sunday Times (London), July 4, 1999.
49. Le Monde, July 13, 1999.
50. L’Humanité, July 14, 1999.
51. Le Monde, July 15, 1999.
52. Le Monde, July 18, 1999.
53. L’Express, July 15, 1999.
54. L’Humanité, July 15, 1999; Mail on Sunday (London), July 18, 1999.
55. L’Express, July 15, 1999.
56. L’Humanité, July 13, 1999.
57. Le Monde, July 18,1999.
58. Extensive coverage appeared in, among many others, Times (London), July 21 and 22, 1999; Guardian (UK), July 22, 1999; Dallas Morning News, July 22, 1999; New York Times, July 22, 1999.
59. Le Monde, July 4, 2009.
60. Le Monde, July 30, 2009.
61. Le Monde, July 27, 2009.
62. Le Monde, July 17, 2009.
63. Le Monde, July 19, 2009.
64. Brissonneau et al., “Carrière sportive et socialisation secondaire en cyclisme sur route,” 131.
65. Sud- Ouest, July 4, 2010.
66. Le Monde, July 28, 1999.
67. Bicycling, March 20, 2008.
68. In an Internet- only piece before the 2009 Tour, Time ranked Vietto’s “Great Sacrifi ce”
as the fi fth most dramatic moment in Tour history. Time offi cial website, July 2, 2009, http://
www .time .com /time /specials /packages /article /0 ,28804 ,1908387 _1908388 _1908368 ,00 .html, accessed January 9, 2014. It should be noted, however, that the myth of Vietto’s “beau geste” differs slightly from the real context in which the drama of the 1934 race transpired. Despite Vietto’s acknowledged climbing prowess, the rookie rider stood approximately half an hour behind his team leader Magne at the beginning of the two Pyrenean stages in which he “sacrifi ced” himself.
For an analysis of Vietto’s sacrifi ce as a meme of French cycling heroism, see Thompson, “René Vietto et le Tour de France de 1934.”
69. Hugh Dauncey notes this trend in his discussion of France’s enthusiasm for the “hopeless” yet exciting exploits of “modest” French cyclist Thomas Voeckler, who wore the yellow jersey frequently but always acknowledged that he never had a chance of winning the Tour.