by Eric Reed
79. RTF, journal télévisé, December 27, 1960, INA online.
80. Pathé/RTF, “Jacques Anquetil: Les coulisses de l’exploit,” November 23, 1963, INA online.
81. Georges Durand and Pierre Joly, preface to Poulidor, La gloire sans maillot jaune, 12.
82. Startt, Tour de France / Tour de Force, 81.
83. Georges Durand and Pierre Joly, preface to Poulidor, La gloire sans maillot jaune, 13.
84. Le Miroir des Sports, January 11, 1960.
85. Advertisement, SPAR department stores, L’Équipe, July 2, 1964.
86. L’Équipe, June 23, 1966.
87. Jacques Goddet, preface to Poulidor, Mon age d’or, 9, 11.
88. Le Miroir des Sports, January 4, 1960.
89. Jacques Anquetil described his fi rst Novi- Ligure meeting with Coppi, whom he dubbed the “don” of the cycling world, in his autobiography. Anquetil, Je suis comme ça, 39.
90. Le Miroir des Sports, January 4, 1960.
91. Cyclisme Magazine, February 3, 1969. In 1970, 85 percent of farm holdings in France were of forty- nine hectares or less and many of France’s small farmers owned their land as disjointed parcels. Less than 2 percent of French farmers owned holdings of more than 100 hectares. Larkin, France since the Popular Front, 386.
92. Cyclisme Magazine, February 5, 1969.
93. Ollivier, La légende de Louison Bobet, 247, 249.
94. Cyclisme Magazine, February 5, 1969.
95. Poulidor, Mon age d’or, 173.
96. Calvet, Le mythe des géants de la route, 199.
97. Thompson, Tour de France, 215 – 55.
98. For an extended discussion of this scandal and the public reaction to it, see Thompson, The Tour de France, 244 – 53.
99. On legal, procedural, and medical developments in doping and doping prevention since 1967, see ibid., 215 – 55; Christiansen, “The Legacy of Festina.”
Chapter Five
1. An earlier version of this chap. appeared in French Historical Studies 30, no. 4 (Fall 2007): 651– 84.
2. Comité Caennais du Tour de France, “Dix ans du comité Caennais du Tour de France cyclist,” 1935, AMC.
3. On tourism, nation building, consumer culture, and national identity, see Harp, Marketing Michelin; Baranowski and Furlough eds., Being Elsewhere; Kaufmann, Consuming Visions.
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n o t e s t o p a g e s 1 1 1 – 1 1 4
In his analysis of Limoges’s festival of Francophone theater, created in 1984, David Troyansky characterizes the Limousin capital as “crossroads for global encounters” and a “transnational space” in the contemporary era. Troyansky, “Displaying World Culture in Provincial France,” 425.
4. Studies that explore the cultural, political, and economic agency of provincial communities in this process include Sahlins, Boundaries; Ford, Creating the Nation in Provincial France; Rogers, Shaping Modern Times in Rural France; Wakeman, Modernizing the Provincial City; Hecht, The Radiance of France; Young, Enacting Brittany.
5. Lagrée, “Brittany,” Raspaud, “Stade Rennais,” and Dine, “Sporting Assimilation and Cultural Confusion in Brittany,” in Jarvie, ed., Sport in the Making of Celtic Cultures.
6. Christopher Thompson explores how the Tour became an arena in which competing
“master narratives” and “counter- narratives” of French history, national unity, and disunity were expressed in the Third Republic and immediate post – World War II eras. Thompson, The Tour de France, 3 – 4, 51– 94. Scholars of French gastronomy have explored the packaging of regional cuisine and wine for national and international audiences of consumers and tourists, including the integral role played by regional interests in the process. See esp. Laferté, “The Folklorization of French Farming”; Hache- Bissette and Saillard, eds., Gastronomie et identité culturelle française; Guy, When Champagne Became French.
7. Urban studies scholars in many academic disciplines have drawn evocative parallels between the processes of urbanization and globalization. Knox and Taylor, eds., World Cities in a World System; Sassen, The Global City; Eade, ed. Living the Global City.
8. Ford, Creating the Nation in Provincial France, 65 – 66.
9. Planson and Koshaneg, Histoire de la nation bretonne, 12, 166.
10. Campos, “Beating the Bounds,” 159 – 63.
11. Ibid., 159 – 60. On discourses of regional diversity and national unity in the Third Republic, see Thiesse, Ils apprenaient la France; Peer, France on Display.
12. Christopher Thompson discusses at length the 1919 Tour’s passage through Alsace and Lorraine, as well as the broader symbolic meanings of the race as a celebration of regional diversity and national unity during the Third Republic, in his The Tour de France, 55 – 71.
13. Planson and Koshaneg, Histoire de la nation bretonne, 12.
14. Reese, The Bretons against France, 4.
15. Hélias, Le cheval d’orgueil, 530.
16. Dine, “Sporting Assimilation and Cultural Confusion in Brittany,” 125 – 26.
17. Lagrée, “Brittany,” 53.
18. La Dépêche de Brest et de l’Ouest, August 25, 1936.
19. La Dépêche de Brest et de l’Ouest, July 23, 1936.
20. Christopher Thompson and Catherine Bertho- Lavenir point out that region- specifi c caricatures of spectators became part of the Tour’s public image and were important, too, in perpetuating narratives of French unity and diversity. Thompson, Tour de France, 59 – 67; Bertho-Lavenir, “Derrière la barrière.”
21. Correspondence between M. Gouinguenet (local representative of Tour organizers) and mayor of Brest, June 8, 1921, and June 10, 1921, AMB 1 I 5(3).
22. La Dépêche de Brest et de l’Ouest, July 20, 1932.
23. Lucien Avocat, quoted by Noël Kerdraon, La Dépêche de Brest et de l’Ouest, September 14, 1933.
24. La Dépêche de Brest et de l’Ouest, May 23, 1936.
n o t e s t o p a g e s 1 1 5 – 1 2 1
217
25. La Dépêche de Brest et de l’Ouest, May 23, 1935.
26. La Dépêche de Brest et de l’Ouest, May 11, 1933.
27. Hélias, Le cheval d’orgueil, 523 – 24, 546.
28. Patrick Young explains how rural Bretons restaged and promoted the religious processions to accommodate and profi t from tourists’ interest in authentic, folkloric experiences.
Young, Enacting Brittany, 171– 213.
29. La Dépêche de Brest et de l’Ouest, July 20, 1932.
30. La Dépêche de Brest et de l’Ouest, May 11, 1933, and May 23, 1936.
31. Hudson Hawley, “Boosters of Brittany: The Saga of the George F. Babbitts of Finistère,”
New York Times Book Review and Magazine, July 22, 1923. Patrick Young notes that travelers from elsewhere helped to fabricate and cordon off touristic spaces where Breton cultural authenticity was enacted as they depicted Brittany’s folkloric culture in print and on canvas to tourist audiences. Young, Enacting Brittany, 171– 213.
32. Le Gallo, Histoire de Brest, 8.
33. Le Goïc, “Qui fait la ville?,” 222; Le Gallo, Histoire de Brest, 338.
34. Clout, “Place Annihilation and Urban Reconstruction,” 168.
35. Prewar population based on 1936 statistics. Le Gallo, Histoire de Brest, 323, 342; Rouxel and Dieudonné, “La ville provisoire,” in Histoire de Brest, ed. Le Gallo, 178.
36. Rouxel and Dieudonné, “La ville provisoire,” 178, 182.
37. Ouest- France, June 25, 1952.
38. Minutes, Brest City Council, March 24, 1952, AMB 1 I 5(3).
39. Letter from Directeur Général des Services Techniques de Brest to the president of the comité local d’organisation du Tour de France, June 11, 1952, AMB 1 I 5(3).
40. “État des dépenses faites à l’occasion du départ du Tour de France cycliste, le 25 juin 1952,” AMB R L.14; “Comité d’Organisation du départ du Tour de France 1952, Commission des Fêtes, Cercles Celtiques et ‘Kevrennou’ participant au Départ le 25 juin à Brest,” AMB 1 I 5(3).
41. Le Télégramme de Brest et de l’Ouest, April 11, 1952.
42. Le Télégramme de Brest et de l’Ouest, April 18, 1952.
43. “État des dépenses faites à l’occasion du départ du Tour de France cycliste, le 25 juin 1952,” AMB R L.14; Le Télégramme de Brest et de l’Ouest, June 25, 1952.
44. Le Télégramme de Brest et de l’Ouest, June 25, 1952.
45. RTF, “Tour de France : 1ère étape Brest- Rennes,” Journal Télévisé de 20h, June 26, 1952, INA online.
46. Ibid.
47. Le Télégramme de Brest et de l’Ouest, June 25, 1952.
48. Le Télégramme de Brest et de l’Ouest, June 20, 1952.
49. Le Télégramme de Brest et de l’Ouest, August 18, 1954.
50. Le Gallo, Histoire de Brest, 297– 98, 356 – 57, 359; Le Couédic, “Brest et la pierre philosophale,” 203.
51. Ville de Brest, Service des affaires économiques, “Les problèmes du développement économique brestois,” April 1974, AMB 1 I 5(4).
52. On efforts to decentralize economic management during the 1960s and 1970s, see Gourevitch, Paris and the Provinces, 75 – 77, 130 – 52, 212 – 13; Gildea, France since 1945, 128 – 35.
53. Le Gallo, “Images d’une ville,” 21; Berthou, “Les changements majeurs du XIXe siècle,”
108 – 12; Le Couédic, “La rémanence du rêve,” 138 – 44; Le Gallo, Histoire de Brest, 237– 69, 328 –
29, 345, 361– 62.
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n o t e s t o p a g e s 1 2 1 – 1 2 7
54. Ville de Brest, Service des affaires économiques, “Les problèmes du développement économique brestois,” April 1974, AMB 1 I 5(4).
55. “Point des actions menées jusqu’à ce jour, Tour de France 1974,” AMB 1 I 5(4).
56. New York Times, June 10, 1961; Éclair- Pyrénées, June 22, 1962; Le Monde, September 6, 1994.
57. By the early 1970s, Brittany produced more than half of France’s artichokes. Sérant, La Bretagne et la France, 184.
58. Press release, “Pour la première fois de son histoire: Le Tour de France cycliste ira en Angleterre en 1974,” June 5, 1973, AMB 1 I 5(4).
59. Contract signed by Gourvennec, Brest, and Tour directors, April 24, 1973, AMB 1 I 5(4).
In 1974, Pau paid the Tour 65,000 francs to host a stage. Pau host- town contract, October 23, 1974, AMP 3 R 1/3.
60. “Brest, pôle de développement. Bienvenue à Brest” (media packet), AMB 1 I 5(4).
61. Minutes, Tour de France Entertainment Committee meeting, March 13, 1974,
AMB 1 I 5(4).
62. Minutes, Tour de France regional organizing committee, Morlaix, April 30, 1974, AMB 1 I 5(4).
63. “Liste des anciens coureurs Bretons du Tour de France presents à Brest pour le Tour 1974,” AMB 1 I 5(4).
64. Time, the Montreal Gazette, the New York Times, the Times (London), and the Los Angeles Times published numerous stories. A Google News Archive search reveals that newswire stories and editorials appeared in dozens of other dailies across the United States. Art Buchwald was so moved by the confl icts that he called, tongue- in- cheek, for “Artichoke Disarmament.”
Meriden (CT) Journal, July 12, 1960, GNA.
65. Ouest- France, June 17, 1974.
66. L’Équipe, June 25, 1974.
67. Le Télégramme de Brest et de l’Ouest, July 1, 1974.
68. It is worth noting that the Breton organizing committee devoted more than 10 percent of the entire projected budget to hosting receptions for journalists. Minutes, “Tour de France”
meeting, December 13, 1973, AMB 1 I 5(4).
69. ORTF, “Tour de France: Plymouth à l’heure du Tour,” June 29, 1974, INA online.
70. Times (London), July 1, 1974.
71. Times (London), June 29, 1974.
72. The Tour’s website, www .letour .fr, received up to 491,000 unique visitors and 3.7 million page views per day during the 2009 Tour. http:// www .quantcast .com, accessed Dec 11, 2010.
73. “Les villes étapes 2008: visitez Brest,” offi cial Tour de France YouTube website, http://
youtu .be /GuTfYrUy3QQ, accessed January 7, 2014.
74. Thomazeau and Blanchet, Guide touristique, Tour de France 2008, 2 – 13.
75. Ouest- France, June 30, 2008.
76. L’Express, July 10, 2008.
77. Le Télégramme (formerly Le Télégramme de Brest et de l’Ouest), July 2, 2008.
78. France 3 Ouest /Iroise,“Grand Départ du Tour de France,” 19/20, July 5, 2008, France 2
website, http:// ma - tvideo .france2 .fr /video /iLyROoafY4BT .html, accessed June 20, 2013.
79. Thomazeau and Blanchet, Guide touristique, Tour de France 2008 (English version); live coverage, 2008 Tour de France, stage 1, Versus Network, July 5, 2008.
80. Tucoo- Chala, ed., Histoire de Pau, 170, 172.
n o t e s t o p a g e s 1 2 8 – 1 3 2
219
81. Patriote des Pyrénées, July 9, 1932. Douglas Peter Mackaman puts the number of spa goers in 1900 at 800,000. Mackaman, Leisure Settings, 43, 66.
82. Tucoo- Chala, ed., Histoire de Pau, 172.
83. Dine, French Rugby Football, 47.
84. New York Times, February 14, 1909. The investment was reported to total $15,000.
85. Tucoo- Chala, ed., Histoire de Pau, 171.
86. Times (London), January 27 and February 3, 1920.
87. Times (London), March 23, 1922.
88. New York Times, October 20, 1901.
89. Los Angeles Times, November 13, 1938.
90. New York Times, October 30, 1938.
91. Chadefaud, Aux origines du tourisme dans les pays de l’Adour, 880.
92. Patriote des Pyrénées, August 1, 1935. Patrick Young cites estimates by the president of the French Chambers of Commerce that point to an even more precipitous decline from 19 million foreign tourist visits in 1929 to 900,000 in 1934 – 35. Bahon- Rault, Politique consulaire du tourisme, 3, cited in Young, “A Place Like Any Other?” 139.
93. Tucoo- Chala, Petite histoire du Béarn, 143 – 44.
94. Times (London), March 23, 1922. Another article even complained about the high price of eggs and fowl in Pau. Times (London), February 3, 1920.
95. Patriote des Pyrénées, June 19, 1937 and September 2, 1939.
96. New York Times, November 23, 1926.
97. Patriote des Pyrénées, August 3, 1935. Harvey Levenstein’s history of American tourists in France argues that the traditional distinction between upper- class “travelers” and middle- class
“tourists” is false. In his argument, the decline of “cultural tourism” (immersion in high culture for the purpose of education or self- improvement) and the emergence of “recreational tourism”
(seeking pleasure and amusement) accounts for such shifts in tourist culture. Levenstein, Seductive Journey, ix – xi, 245 – 48, 280 – 83.
98. M. Verdenal, minutes, City Council, Bulletin Offi ciel de la Ville de Pau, December 1926, cited in Chadefaud, Aux origines du tourisme dans les pays de l’Adour, 882.
99. Ibid., 884 – 901. Patrick Young describes the national trend toward modernizing French tourist amenities, especially hotels, to conform to international standards. Pau was a relative latecomer to this trend, which Young argues began in the late belle epoque. Young, “A Place Like Any Other?,” 141– 49.
100. Sallenave, Souvenirs d’un maire de Béarn, 64, 68. During the interwar years, many provincial towns began to organize foire- expositions. Martin, Trois siècles de publicité en France, 207.
101. Address of M. Herskowiza, minutes, City Council, June 6, 1930, AMP 1D1/52.
102. Patriote des Pyrénées, July 10, 1930.
103. Patriote des Pyrénées, July 11, 1930.
104. Patriote des Pyrénées, July 25, 1934.
105. Minutes, City Council, December 16, 1935, AMP 3R1/2.
106. Letter to mayor of Pau, March 25, 1935, AMP 3R1/2.
107. Ibid.
108.
Minutes, City Council, December 16, 1935, AMP 3R1/2.
109. Patriote des Pyrénées, July 19, 1935.
110. Patriote des Pyrénées, July 20, 1935.
220
n o t e s t o p a g e s 1 3 3 – 1 3 8
111. Ibid.
112. Boyer, L’invention du tourisme, 122.
113. La IVe République des Pyrénees, July 1, 1949.
114. Minutes, City Council, August 10, 1949; letter from mayor of Pau to mayor of Agen, January 29, 1951; letter to mayor of Pau, May 19, 1957, AMP 3 R 1/2.
115. RTF, Newsreel “Tour de France 1953: 10ème étape Pau – Cauterets,” July 14, 1953, INA online.
116. RTF, Newsreel “Tour de France: Pau- Luchon 11ème étape,” July 6, 1960, INA online.
117. Minutes, City Council, May 6, 1947, AMP 3 R 1/2.
118. Minutes, City Council, August 21, 1959, AMP 3 R 1/2; Chambre de Commerce et d’Industrie de Pau, “Situation économique et perspectives d’avenir,” January 1966, 54.
119. Montreal Gazette, April 20, 1962, GNA.
120. New York Times, April 12, 1955; Time, April 14, 1961.
121. New York Times, April 5, 1964.
122. H. Peyrou (owner of Hôtel Corona, Pau), interview by author, tape recording, Pau, March 15, 1999; B. Kalmoun (manager of Hôtel Gramont, Pau), interview by author, tape recording, Pau, March 11, 1999.
123. Minutes, City Council, February 27, 1959, AMP 3 R 1/2.
124. Éclair- Pyrénées, July 21, 1954.
125. Éclair- Pyrénées, July 28, 1955.
126. J. Touyarot (owner of Hôtel Continental), interview by author, tape recording, Pau, March 19, 1999.
127. Correspondence between Tour and mayor of Pau, November 3, 1953; February 1, 1957; February 14, 1957, AMP 3 R 1/2.
128. Letter to mayor of Pau, December 30, 1961, AMP 3 R 1/3.
129. Statistics for the years 1964 to 1966. Chambre de Commerce et d’Industrie (CCI) de Pau, “Situation économique et perspectives d’avenir,” January 1966, 56; CCI de Pau, “Situation économique et perspectives d’avenir,” January 1967, 55, ADBP.
130. Elf- Aquitaine, Elf- Aquitaine des origines à 1989, 38 – 39.
131. Ibid., 42, 51.
132. Martine Lignières- Cassou, “Elf au coeur du Béarn,” in Josy Poueyto (ed.), Le journal de votre Conseillère Générale — Canton de Pau Centre, no. 2 (Pau, 1999), back cover, AMP.