Still the Iron Age
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Index
Note: Page numbers followed by “f” and “t” refer to figures and tables, respectively.
A
Absolute dematerialization, 214–215
Advanced high strength steels (AHSS), 205–206
Agriculture, steel in, 51
AHSS, See Advanced high strength steels (AHSS)
Air pollution, 153–154
in China, 154
Aluminum, 134–135
alloys, 205–206
America’s postwar retreat, 72
American steel industry, 74
post–WW II, 74–75
twentieth century, 73
US pig iron, 73
American Iron and Steel Institute, 217
American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM), 54
American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), 168
Ammonium sulfate ((NH4)2SO4), 39–40
AOD, See Argon oxygen decarburization (AOD)
Argon oxygen decarburization (AOD), 149
ASCE, See American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE)
ASTM, See American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM)
Atmospheric emissions, 153–154, 154
B
Babassu palm (Orbignya martiana), 211–212
Banded iron formation (BIF), 117–118
Basic oxygen furnaces (BOFs), 87, 115–116, 140–141, 203
materials for, 116
iron ore, 117
metallurgical coke, 122
Basic steelmaking, 45–46
Batteries, 28
Bessemer, Henry, 41–42, 42f
Bessemer steel, 42–43
Bessemer–Durrer process, 100–101
BFs, See Blast furnaces (BFs)
BIF, See Banded iron formation (BIF)
Blast furnaces (BFs), 5–6, 36, 115, 140–141, 203
See also Electric arc furnaces, Oxygen furnaces
America’s primacy, 40
American blast furnace, 38f
Armco process, 93
charcoal-fueled furnace, 37
Chinese smelting, 6–7
development of modern, 87–88
direct hot oxygen injection, 95
early-twentieth-century Semet-Solvay by-product coke oven, 39f
Edward Gray Corporation, 89
European cast iron, 9
European production of liquid iron, 7
global pig iron production, 41
JFE’s No. 2 blast furnace, 94f
liquid iron, 6
materials for, 116
iron ore, 117
metallurgical coke, 122
molten iron, 8–9
Nippon Steel furnaces, 92
NKK, 94
Oita No. 1, 90
pig iron production, 88–89
POSCO’s steel mill, 91f
post-1990 reconstructions, 92
regenerative principle, 36
Bloomery iron, 2–3
bloomeries, 4
bloomery smelting, 4
in Europe, 3
modern experiments, 3
small-scale batch operation, 5
smelting technique, 4–5
Bloomery smelting, 4, 4–5
BOFs, See Basic oxygen furnaces (BOFs)
Brazilian Mining Institute, 119
British ironmaking, 20
British furnaces, 23–24
cast iron, 21
charcoal, 24
during eighteenth century, 22–23
eighteenth-century blast furnace, 24f
fuels, 25
James Watt’s steam engine, 23f
pig iron production, 22
C
Car industry, steel in, 58
Ford’s Model T, 59f
market for US, 59–60
Carbon dioxide (CO2), 159, 159, 159–160, 160, 160, 161, 161
Carbon monoxide (CO), 154
Carbonate ore, 117
Catalan forges, 4
Charcoal, 9
in early seventeenth-century England, 10f
high-grade iron, 9–10
iron-making campaigns, 11
making, 10f
production, 10, 11
smelting and forging of iron, 12
substituting coke by, 208–213
Chemical oxygen demand (COD), 154
Chinese dominance, 79
Chinese Communist Party, 81–82
high-quality metal, 85–86
iron and steel plant in western suburbs of Beijing, 80f
ore in Qingdao port, 83f
reinforcing bars on construction site, 84f
steel industry, 82–83, 84
US industrial production, 80–81
Circulating scrap, See Home scrap
CO, See Carbon monoxide (CO)
Co-fusion, 15
Coal, 122
COD, See Chemical oxygen demand (COD)
Coke, British transition to, 25
charcoal, 27
charcoal-fueled furnaces, 25–26
coke adoption, 26
coke-based smelting, 28
coke-producing methods, 28
Coke-based smelting, 28, 28–29
Coking, 155
Construction, steel in, 60
Bessemer’s production, 62
iron in building construction, 61
skyscrapers, 61–62
structural steel, 61
in United States, 60–61
Consumer products, 179–182
Consumption rates, 196
net steel using, 199–200
steel consumption, 196–197, 198
during twentieth century, 197
Continuous casting
advantages, 113
diffusion, 110
global expansion, 109
mature production process, 112–113
metal sticking, 108
post-WW II changes, 107–108
standard sequence of modern, 110–111
torches cutting continuously cast steel, 111f
Corsican forges, 4
Cort’s dry puddling, 32
Crude steel production, 236
Crushed natural iron ore, 120
Cu–As alloys, 1
D
Damascus steel blades, 13–14
Danieli design, 137
Dematerialization, 213
absolute, 214–215
Diffusion
bow-type caster, 112
cast steel, 113
casting speed, 111
continuous casting, 110, 110–111, 112–113
slab casting, 114f
torches cutting continuously cast steel, 111f
Direct reduction of iron (DRI), 87, 95, 98, 120
See also Iron ore (Fe2O3)
commercialization, 95–96
global production, 98
HBI, 96
iron ore concentrate, 97–98
MIDREX process, 95–96, 96
RHFs, 97
Dolomite (CaCO3 MgCO3), 124
DRI, See Direct reduction of iron (DRI)
E
Electric arc furnaces (EAFs), 87, 103, 115–116, 140–141, 203
See also Blast furnaces (BFs), Oxygen furnaces
DC furnaces, 104–105
gantry design, 105–106
oxygen, 106
refractory linings, 105
secondary refining of steel, 107
steel material balances, 136
Danieli design, 137
energy-reducing measure, 137
furnaces, 137
pig iron ratio, 138, 138
Turkish
EAF, 136
tap-to-tap times, 104
US steel:pig iron ratio, 107
before WW I, 103–104
Electricity, 139, 144, 147–148, 148, 159–160, 171
high-quality steels, 173
hydrogeneration requirement, 173–174
LNG, 171–172
nuclear fission, 174–175
steel industry, 174
Electrostatic precipitators, 69
Embodied energy, 142
Energy accounting, 141–142
electricity, 144
embodied energy, 142
energy analysis, 144
in Europe, 145
ironmaking, 143
Energy industries, steel in, 53
Energy-reducing measure, 137
European ironmaking, 20
cast iron, 21
charcoal, 24
during eighteenth century, 22–23
eighteenth-century blast furnace, 24f
fuels, 25
James Watt’s steam engine, 23f
pig iron production, 22
F
Fluxes, 124
Fluxing materials, 124
FSV, See FutureSteelVehicle (FSV)
Fuels, 139, 143–144, 144, 152, 155, 171
high-quality steels, 173
hydrogeneration requirement, 173–174
LNG, 171–172
nuclear fission, 174–175
steel industry, 174
steels for giant oil tankers, 172–173
FutureSteelVehicle (FSV), 205
G
GDP, 203, 214, 223
Goethite (HFeO2), 117
Gute Hoffnungshütte (GHH), 41
H
HBI, See Hot-briquetted iron (HBI)
HCl, See Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
Hematite (Fe2O3), 117
HIsarna process, 217
Home scrap, 130–131
Hot pig iron, 124–125, 126–127
Hot-briquetted iron (HBI), 96
Hundred refinings, 15
Hydrochloric acid (HCl), 155
I
Industrial equipment, 179–182
Industry’s state, 191–192
GE Aerodivison, 194
governmental intervention, 195
modern economic development, 193
profits, 196
Inexpensive steel, 41–42
automobile industry, 49
Bessemer steel, 42–43
Bessemer’s converter, 43f, 44
Bethlehem Steel, 49f
development, 48–49
open hearths, 45
open-hearth furnaces, 46
oxygen services, 46–47
Siemens furnace, 45
steel output, 47
US metallurgists, 50
US steel production, 48
Infrastructures and buildings, 165–166
Akashi Kaikyō Bridge, 170f
cable-stayed bridges, 169–171
Chinese infrastructures, 168
framing steel, 171
heavy reinforcing bars, 166f
skyscrapers construction, 169
Soviet techniques, 167
Tōkyō Tree, 170f
for United Kingdom, 166–167
Integrated steelmaking material balances, 125
BFs, 128t
BOFs, 128t
continuous casting, 129–130
hot pig iron, 126–127
integrated steelmaking route, 125
material balances, 125, 127
natural gas-based DRI, 127
primary iron smelting in BFs, 127
rates, 129–130
Tuyères of Baosteel’s, 126f
vast global system, 125
International steel scrap trade, 135
Iron
blast furnaces, 36–41
coke-fueled blast furnaces, 35
industry, 19
smelting, 183
trade, 19
before WW I, 35–36
Iron and steel, 203
air pollution, 153–156
dematerialization, 213–215
energy accounting, 141–142
electricity, 144
embodied energy, 142
energy analysis, 144
in Europe, 145
ironmaking, 143
fuel requirements, 139
future requirements, 219
forecasts, 222–228
global population, 220
R/P ratios, 221
USGS, 221
JFE’s Keihin, 141f
LCA, 156–161
material-and energy-intensive industry, 140
new processes, 215–216
HIsmelt process, 216–217
ironmaking techniques, 218
molten oxide electrolysis, 218
Novel Flash Ironmaking, 217–218
solid wastes, 153–156
substitutions, 204
coke by charcoal, 208–213
lightweighting, 205–208
water pollution, 153–156
Iron and steel industry, changing leadership in
America’s postwar retreat, 72–75
Chinese dominance, 79–86
Chinese steel production, 66
economies of scale, 68
industry’s employment, 67
Japan in lead, 75–79
Japanese and German economies, 66–67
NUCOR, 67
pig iron smelting, 65
from WW I to end of WW II, 68–69
American victory, 72
German steel industry, 71
in US, 70
US ironmakers, 69
in USSR, 70–71
Iron carbide (Fe3C), 14–15
Iron ore (Fe2O3), 117, 118, 118–119, 146
See also Wrought iron
beneficiation, 121
Brazilian Mining Institute, 119
Carajas iron ore mine in Pará, 120f
carbonate ore, 117
concentrate, 97–98
crushed natural, 120
magnitude, 119
pellets, 121–122
production in Europe, 119
sintering, 121
sintering and pelletizing processes, 120
USGS, 118
Iron production
British iron industry, 19
British transition to coke, 25–28
burden, 116
European and British ironmaking before 1750, 20
British furnaces, 23–24
cast iron, 21
charcoal, 24
during eighteenth century, 22–23
eighteenth-century blast furnace, 24f
fuels, 25
James Watt’s steam engine, 23f
pig iron production, 22
history, 115
hot blast furnaces, 28–31
iron industry, 19
larger furnaces, 28–31
materials for BFS and BOFS, 116
iron ore, 117–122
metallurgical coke, 122–125
oil injection, 116–117
steps in charcoal making, 20f
wrought iron, 32–34
Ironmaking Technology Mark 3 (ITmk3), 97
J
Japan in modern iron and steel plant, 75–76
Japanese steelmakers, 78–79
Nippon Steel’s Oita blast furnaces, 78f
pig iron production, 77
postwar development, 76
twentieth-century steel production, 79
US ironmakers, 77
L
Larger furnaces
coke-based smelting, 28–29
coke-fueled blast furnaces, 29
larger coke-fueled furnaces, 30
molten metal, 29
pig iron, 31
LCA, See Life cycle assessment (LCA)
Lepidocrocite (FeO(OH)), 117
Life cycle assessment (LCA), 156–157, 207
carbon emissions, 158
C
O2 emissions, 159, 160
coke dry quenching, 161
EAF steelmaking, 160
injection of pulverized coal, 160
ULCOS projects, 161
Light flat-rolled products, 134
Lightweighting, 205
aluminum alloys, 205–206
engine downsizing, 207
HSS production, 206
LCA, 207, 208
Limestone (CaCO3), 124
Liquefied natural gas (LNG), 171–172
M
Magnesium oxide (MgO), 100
Magnetite (Fe3O4), 117
Metallurgical coke, 122, 122–124, 124
coke ovens at JFE’s Fukuyama Works, 123f
fluxes, 124
hot pig iron, 124–125
piles of coal ready for coking at iron and steel mill, 123f
tonne of coking coal yields, 122–124
Meteoritic iron, 2
MgO, See Magnesium oxide (MgO)
MIDREX process, 95–96, 96
Modern ironmaking, 87
blast furnaces, 87–95
continuous casting, 107–109
diffusion and improvements, 110–114
direct reduced iron, 95–98
electric arc furnaces, 103–107
oxygen furnaces, 98–103
Modern steelmaking, 87
See also Steelmaking energy cost
continuous casting, 107–109
diffusion and improvements, 110–114
electric arc furnaces, 103–107
oxygen furnaces, 98–103
Moldboard plow, 51
Molten oxide electrolysis, 218
N
Natural gas-based DRI, 127
Nippon Steel and Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, 112
Nippon Steel Corporation, 67–68
Nippon Steel Corporation with Sumitomo Metal Corporation (NSSMC), 67–68
Nitrogen oxides (NOx), 154
NSSMC, See Nippon Steel Corporation with Sumitomo Metal Corporation (NSSMC)
O
Open hearth furnaces (OHFs), 45, 45, 45–46, 46, 46, 98–99, 99
Open-hearth steelmaking, 45
Own arisings, See Home scrap
Oxygen, 106
Oxygen furnaces, 98–99
See also Blast furnaces (BFs), Electric arc furnaces
economic impact of BOFs, 103
Japanese steelmakers, 101
MgO, 100
modern BOFs, 101–102
molten pig iron, 102f
OHFs, 99
productivity advances, 102
30-t oxygen furnace, 100–101
P
Paired Straight Hearth Furnace (PSH), 218
Pellets, 121–122
Photochemical ozone creation potential (POCP), 157
Pig iron, 5–6, 8
production, 19, 22, 34, 35
global, 41
POCP, See Photochemical ozone creation potential (POCP)
Premodern steel, 12–13
carbon-containing blooms, 16
Damascus steel blades, 13–14
European carburization, 13
iron objects, 17, 17
medium-or high-carbon steel, 16
metallurgical classification, 14