Freedom

by Freedom- The Overthrow of the Slave Empires (retail) (epub)

  22 Christopher Schmidt-Nowara, Slavery, Freedom and Abolition, pp. 148–9.

  23 Christopher Schmidt-Nowara, ‘Transition from Slavery’, in David Eltis et al., Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume 4, p. 476.

  Chapter 9

  1 David Eltis and David Richardson, Atlas, p. 203.

  2 João José Reis, ‘Slavery in Nineteenth-century Brazil’, in David Eltis et al., Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume 4, pp. 132–3.

  3 Emilia Viotti da Costa, The Brazilian Empire, p. 131.

  4 William Sullivan, ‘Brazil is Coffee’.

  5 Boris Fausto, A Concise History of Brazil, p. 107.

  6 James Walvin, Sugar, p. 84.

  7 João José Reis, ‘Slavery in Nineteenth-century Brazil’, in David Eltis et al., Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume 4, p. 131.

  8 João José Reis, ‘Slavery in Nineteenth-century Brazil’, in David Eltis et al., Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume 4, pp. 136–8.

  9 David Eltis and David Richardson, Atlas, p. 203.

  10 Emilia Viotti da Costa, The Brazilian Empire, pp. 135–6.

  11 João José Reis, ‘Slavery in Nineteenth-century Brazil’, in David Eltis et al., Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume 4, pp. 141, 148.

  12 James H. Sweet, Recreating Africa, p. 206.

  13 James H. Sweet, Recreating Africa, Ch. 9.

  14 João José Reis, ‘Slavery in Nineteenth-century Brazil’, in David Eltis et al., Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume 4, pp. 142–3.

  15 João José Reis, ‘Slavery in Nineteenth-century Brazil’, in David Eltis et al., Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume 4, p. 141.

  16 João José Reis, ‘Slavery in Nineteenth-century Brazil’, in David Eltis et al., Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume 4, pp. 145–6.

  17 João José Reis, ‘Slavery in Nineteenth-century Brazil’, in David Eltis et al., Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume 4, p. 140.

  18 João José Reis, ‘Slavery in Nineteenth-century Brazil’, in David Eltis et al., Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume 4, pp. 149–50.

  19 Mary G. Karasch, Slave Life in Rio, Ch. 10.

  20 João José Reis, ‘Slavery in Nineteenth-century Brazil’, in David Eltis et al., Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume 4, pp. 150–1.

  21 João José Reis, ‘Slavery in Nineteenth-century Brazil’, in David Eltis et al., Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume 4, p. 146.

  22 João José Reis, ‘Slavery in Nineteenth-century Brazil’, in David Eltis et al., Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume 4, p. 147.

  23 João José Reis, ‘Slavery in Nineteenth-century Brazil’, in David Eltis et al., Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume 4, pp. 147–8.

  24 Seymour Drescher, Abolition, p. 354.

  25 C. T. Castillo, ‘Abolition and Its Aftermath in Brazil’, in David Eltis et al., Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume 4, p. 488.

  26 Emilia Viotti da Costa, The Brazilian Empire, pp. 161–2.

  27 C. T. Castillo, ‘Abolition and Its Aftermath in Brazil’, in David Eltis et al., Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume 4, pp. 493–5.

  28 Seymour Drescher, Abolition, p. 353.

  29 Seymour Drescher, Abolition, p. 355.

  30 Seymour Drescher, Abolition, p. 356.

  31 Seymour Drescher, Abolition, pp. 356–7.

  32 Seymour Drescher, Abolition, pp. 360–1.

  33 C. T. Castillo, Abolition and Its Aftermath in Brazil’, in David Eltis et al., Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume 4, p. 497.

  34 C. T. Castillo, Abolition and Its Aftermath in Brazil’, in David Eltis et al., Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume 4, p. 499.

  35 C. T. Castillo, Abolition and Its Aftermath in Brazil’, in David Eltis et al., Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume 4, p. 501; Seymour Drescher, Abolition, p. 365, n. 88.

  36 João José Reis, ‘Slavery in Nineteenth-century Brazil’, in David Eltis et al., Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume 4, p. 146.

  37 C. T. Castillo, Abolition and Its Aftermath in Brazil’, in David Eltis et al., Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume 4, p. 501.

  38 C. T. Castillo, Abolition and Its Aftermath in Brazil’, in David Eltis et al., Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume 4, pp. 501–2; Seymour Drescher, Abolition, p. 366.

  39 C. T. Castillo, Abolition and Its Aftermath in Brazil’, in David Eltis et al., Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume 4, p. 503.

  40 Christopher Schmidt-Nowra, Slavery, Freedom and Abolition, pp. 146–55.

  41 David Brion Davis, Slavery and Human Progress, p. 297.

  Chapter 10

  1 Seymour Drescher, Abolition, pp. 228–30.

  2 Suzanne Miers, Slavery in the 20th Century, pp. 10–15.

  3 Silvia Scarpa, Trafficking in Human Beings, pp. 42–3.

  4 Robin Law, Abolition and Imperialism’, in Derek R. Peterson (ed.), Abolitionism and Imperialism, Ch. 6.

  5 Thomas Pakenham, The Scramble for Africa, p. 396.

  6 Silvia Scarpa, Trafficking in Human Beings, p. 43.

  7 John Iliffe, Africans, Ch. 9.

  8 Silvia Scarpa, Trafficking in Human Beings, p. 43.

  9 Silvia Scarpa, Trafficking in Human Beings, p. 44.

  Chapter 11

  1 Anne Applebaum, The Gulag, pp. 276–7.

  2 Anne Applebaum, The Gulag, pp. 74–5.

  3 Anne Applebaum, The Gulag, p. 179.

  4 Michael Geyer and Adam Tooze (eds), The Cambridge History of the Second World War: Volume III: Total War.

  5 Gitta Sereny, The German Trauma, pp. xi, 26.

  6 Gitta Sereny, The German Trauma, p. 139.

  7 Philippe Sands, East West Street, pp. xxi, 111–14.

  8 Kevin Bales, Zoe Trodd and Alex Kent Williamson, Modern Slavery, p. 15.

  9 Tony Judt, Postwar, p. 53.

  10 www.un.org/en.

  11 www.gov.uk/government/collections/modernslavery-bill.

  12 Daily Mail, 12 February 2018; Guardian, 27 January 2016; ITN News, 30 May 2017; Manchester Evening News, 15 February 2007.

  13 Kevin Bales, Zoe Trod and Alex Kent Williamson, Modern Slavery, pp. 22–5.

  14 Kevin Bales, Understanding Global Slavery, p. 186.

  15 Kevin Bales, Zoe Trod and Alex Kent Williamson, Modern Slavery, Ch. 2.

  16 Kevin Bales, ‘Contemporary Coercive Labor Practices’, in David Eltis et al., Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume 4, p. 145–6.

  17 Kevin Bales, ‘Contemporary Coercive Labor Practices’, in David Eltis et al., Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume 4, Ch. 28.

  18 Kevin Bales, ‘Contemporary Coercive Labor Practices’, in David Eltis et al., Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume 4, p. 663.

  19 Kevin Bales, ‘Contemporary Coercive Labor Practices’, in David Eltis et al., Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume 4, p. 674.

  20 Kevin Bales, ‘Contemporary Coercive Labor Practices’, in David Eltis et al., Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume 4, Ch. 28.

  Conclusion

  1 Harper’s Weekly, Vol. 10 (12 May 1866), p. 300.

  2 Randy Browne, Surviving Slavery.

  Bibliography and Further Reading

  For the most recent annual bibliography on slavery see Thomas Thurston, ‘Slavery: Annual Bibliographical Supplement’, Slavery & Abolition (December 2018).

  Databases

  Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database, www.slavevoyages.org

  Legacies of British Slave-ownership, www.ucl.ac.uk/lbs

  Runaway Slaves in Britain, www.runaways.gla.ac.uk

  Last Seen: Finding Family After Slavery, www.informationwanted.org

  Publications

  Anstey, Roger, The Atlantic Slave Trade and British Abolition (London, 1973).

  Applebaum, Anne, The Gulag: A History of the Soviet Camps (London, 2003).

  Bakewell, Peter, A History of Latin America: Empires and Sequels, 1450–1830 (Cambridge, MA, 1997).

&nb
sp; Bales, Kevin, Understanding Global Slavery: A Reader (Berkeley, 2005).

  Bales, Kevin, Zoe Trod and Alex Kent Williamson, Modern Slavery (Richmond, 2009).

  Beckert, Sven, Empire of Cotton: A New History of Global Capitalism (London, 2014).

  Blackburn, Robin, The Making of New World Slavery (London, 1997).

  Blackburn, Robin, The Overthrow of Colonial Slavery, 1776–1848 (London, 1988).

  Blackett, Richard, The Captive’s Quest for Freedom: Fugitive Slaves, the 1850 Fugitive Slave Law, and the Politics of Freedom (Cambridge, 2018).

  Blackett, Richard, Making Freedom: The Underground Railroad and the Politics of Slavery (Chapel Hill, 2013).

  Brown, Christopher, Moral Capital: Foundations of British Abolitionism (Chapel Hill, 2008).

  Browne, Randy, Surviving Slavery in the British Caribbean (Philadelphia, 2017).

  Burnard, Trevor, Mastery, Tyranny, and Desire: Thomas Thistlewood and His Slaves in the Anglo-Jamaican World (Chapel Hill, 2004).

  Burnard, Trevor, Planters, Merchants, and Slaves: Plantation Societies in British America, 1650–1820 (Chicago, 2015).

  Carey, Brycchan and Geoffrey Plank (eds), Quakers and Abolition (Chicago, 2014).

  Carretta, Vincent, Equiano the African: Biography of a Self-Made Man (Athens, Georgia, and London, 2005).

  Craton, Michael, Testing the Chains: Resistance to Slavery in the British West Indies (Ithaca, 1982).

  da Costa, Emilia Viotti, The Brazilian Empire: Myths and Histories (Chapel Hill, 2000).

  Davis, David Brion, Inhuman Bondage: The Rise and Fall of Slavery in the New World (Oxford, 2006).

  Davis, David Brion, The Problem of Slavery in Western Culture (Ithaca, 1966).

  Davis, David Brion, The Problem of Slavery in the Age of Revolution, 1770–1823 (New York, 1999).

  Davis, David Brion, Slavery and Human Progress (New York, 1984).

  Devine, T. M. (ed.), Recovering Scotland’s Slavery Past (Edinburgh, 2015).

  Draper, Nicholas, The Price of Freedom: Slave-ownership, Compensation and British Society at the End of Slavery (Cambridge, 2010).

  Drescher, Seymour, Econocide: British Slavery in the Era of Abolition (London, 1977).

  Drescher, Seymour, The Mighty Experiment: Free Labor Versus Slavery in British Emancipation (New York, 2002).

  Drescher, Seymour, Abolition: A History of Slavery and Antislavery (Cambridge, 2009).

  Eltis, David, The Rise of African Slavery in the Americas (Cambridge, 2000).

  Eltis, David and David Richardson, Atlas of the Transatlantic Slave Trade (New Haven and London, 2010).

  Eltis, David, Stanley L. Engerman, Seymour Drescher and David Richardson (eds), The Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume 4, AD 1804–AD 2016 (Cambridge, 2017).

  Fausto, Boris, A Concise History of Brazil (Cambridge, 1999).

  Fogel, Robert W., Without Consent or Contract. The Rise and Fall of American Slavery (New York, 1989).

  Fogel, Robert W. and Stanley L. Engerman, Time on the Cross. The Economics of American Negro Slavery (Boston, 1974, 2 vols).

  Follett, Richard, The Sugar Masters: Planters and Slaves in Louisiana’s Cane World 1820–1860 (Baton Rouge, 2005).

  Foner, Eric, Gateway to Freedom: The Hidden History of the Underground Railroad: (New York, 2015).

  Foner, Eric, Give Me Liberty: An American History (New York, 2005).

  Geggus, David, Haitian Revolutionary Studies (Bloomington, 2002).

  Geggus, David (ed.), The Haitian Revolution (Indianapolis, 2014).

  Geggus, David, Slavery, War and Revolution: The British Occupation of Saint Domingue, 1793–1798 (Oxford, 1982).

  Geyer, Michael and Adam Tooze (eds), The Cambridge History of the Second World War: Volume III: Total War (Cambridge, 2015).

  Catherine Hall, Cultures of Empire: Colonisers in Britain and the Empire in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries—A Reader, (Manchester, 2000).

  Hall, Catherine, Civilising Subjects: Metropole and Colony in the English Imagination, 1830—1867 (Cambridge, 2002).

  Hall, Catherine, Macaulay and Son: Architects of Imperial Britain (New Haven and London, 2012).

  Hanley, Ryan, Beyond Slavery and Abolition: Black British Writing, c. 1770–1830 (Cambridge, 2018).

  Higman, B. W., A Concise History of the Caribbean (Cambridge, 2011).

  Higman, B. W., Plantation Jamaica, 1750–1850: Capital and Control in a Colonial Economy (Kingston, 2005).

  Higman, B. W., Slave Populations of the British Caribbean, 1807–1834 (Baltimore, 1984).

  Iliffe, John, Africans: The History of a Continent (Cambridge, 1995).

  Isaac, Rhys, Landon Carter’s Uneasy Kingdom. Revolution and Rebellion on a Virginian Pianation (Oxford, 2004).

  Jackson, Maurice, Let This Voice Be Heard: Anthony Benezet, Father of Atlantic Abolitionism (Philadelphia, 2009).

  Judt, Tony, Postwar: A History of Europe since 1945 (London, 2007).

  Karasch, Mary, Slave Life in Rio de Janeiro, 1808–1850 (Princeton, 1987).

  Kolchin, Peter, American Slavery, 1619–1877 (London, 1995).

  Lawrence, A. E., Fortified Trade Posts: The English in West Africa 1645–1822 (London, 1969).

  Midgley, Clare, Women Against Slavery: The British Campaign, 1780–1870 (London, 2016).

  Midlo Hall, Gwendolyn, Africans in Colonial Louisiana (Baton Rouge, 1992).

  Miers, Suzanne, Slavery and Antislavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem (Lanham, 2003).

  Morgan, Kenneth, Slavery and the British Empire (Oxford, 2007).

  Morgan, Philip D., Slave Counterpoint: Black Culture in the Eighteenth-Century Chesapeake and Lowcountry (Chapel Hill, 1998).

  Newton, John, The Journal of a Slave Trader, ed. Bernard Martin and Mark Spurrell (London, 1962).

  Pakenham, Thomas, The Scramble for Africa (London, 1991).

  Paquette, Robert L. and Mark M. Smith (eds), The Oxford Handbook of Slavery in the Americas (Oxford, 2010).

  Peterson, Derek R. (ed.), Abolition and Imperialism in Britain, Africa and the Atlantic (Athens, OH, 2010).

  Petley, Christer, White Fury: A Jamaican Slaveholder and the Age of Revolution (Oxford, 2018).

  Popkin, Jeremy D., Facing Racial Revolution: Eyewitness Accounts of the Haitian Insurrection (Chicago, 2007).

  Postma, Johannes, Slave Revolts (Westport, 2008).

  Rediker, Marcus, The Slave Ship: A Human History (London, 2007).

  Richardson, David, Suzanne Schwarz and Anthony Tibbles (eds), Liverpool and Transatlantic Slavery (Liverpool, 2007).

  Robertson, James, Gone is the Ancient Glory: Spanish Town, Jamaica 1534–2000 (Kingston and Miami, 2005).

  Sands, Philippe, East West Street: On the Origins of Genocide and Crimes Against Humanity (London, 2016).

  Scarpa, Silvia, Trafficking in Human Beings: Modern Slavery (Oxford, 2008).

  Schmidt-Nowara, Christopher, Slavery, Freedom and Abolition in Latin America and the Atlantic World (Albuquerque, 2011).

  Sereny, Gitta, The German Trauma: Experiences and Reflections, 1938— 2001 (London, 2000).

  Sinha, Manisha, The Slaves’ Cause: A History of Abolition (New Haven and London, 2017).

  Sullivan, William, ‘Brazil is Coffee and Coffee is the Negro’, Historian (Dept of History, New York University, 2014 issue).

  Sweet, James H., Recreating Africa: Culture, Kinship and Religion in the African-Portuguese World, 1441–1770 (Chapel Hill, 2003).

  Tadman, Michael, Speculators and Slaves: Masters, Traders, and Slaves in the Old South (Madison, 1989).

  Taylor, Eric Robert, If We Must Die: Shipboard Insurrections in the Era of the Atlantic Slave Trade (Baton Rouge, 2006).

  Walvin, James, Atlas of Slavery (London, 2013).

  Walvin, James, Crossings, Africa, the Americas and the Atlantic Slave Trade (London, 2013).

  Walvin, James, Slavery in Small Things (Chichester, 2017).

  Walvin, James, Sugar: The World Corrupted, from Slavery to Obesity
(London, 2017).

  Walvin, James, The Zong: A Massacre, the Law and the End of Slavery (New Haven and London, 2011).

  Acknowledgements

  This book is a concise study of a complex and far-reaching historical story. Its purpose is to offer a distinctive explanation of the way slavery in the Americas ended. It is a book that engages with many other interpretations of the same issue, and has grown out of my long-standing interest, both as a teacher and as an author, in the history of slavery and abolition. That interest has been influenced and shaped by the work of many other scholars whose arguments, often advanced in substantial scholarly volumes over the past fifty years, have transformed our understanding of the history of slavery and its demise. I could not have written this book without that rich scholarship or, indeed, without the generosity and help of many of the historians involved. My intention here, however, has been to write a book that, while remaining loyal to the scholarly findings of others, seeks to appeal to a non-specialist audience. This is, then, a book for that elusive general readership: people keen to learn more about this critical historical experience without having to confront the fine detail or technical structures of more scholarly presentations. Those same readers can follow the arguments of other historians by using my guide to further reading in the notes and bibliography. Academic readers will know where to look without any help from me.

  This book has emerged from work in a number of libraries, mainly in the USA. I first began to think about the ending of slavery when working in the Huntington Library in California. The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History enabled me to work in the rare book room of Columbia University. Yale’s Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library generously supported research in their remarkable holdings. Much of my reading of secondary sources took place closer to home in the J. B. Morrell Library of the University of York, and on regular visits to the Swem Library at the College of William and Mary in Williamsburg.

  My ideas about slavery and its abolition have been greatly influenced not only by the published scholarship of other historians, but by a professional and personal friendship with many of the people whose names dominate the bibliography. What follows therefore runs the risk of appearing to be a roll call of old friends. The late Michael Craton first launched me into the world of slavery in the mid-1960s. Since then, Gad Heuman has proved an invaluable supporter and friend. So too, more recently, has John Oldfield. In Barry Higman I have been lucky to have a colleague whose remarkable scholarship guided me (and many others) through the complexities of Caribbean culture and history. David Blight has been a steadfast ally and host at a variety of academic events at Yale and in New York City. Caryl Phillips has never failed to be a much-valued friend and helper. Three historians deserve special mention. Seymour Drescher has, almost single-handedly, transformed our understanding of the ending of slavery, while David Richardson and David Eltis have created a monumental study of the Atlantic slave trade. All three have also been unfailingly generous to me with their time and ideas. Though this book is not solely about British slavery, it has evolved from work on the history of the role of slavery in British history. For that, I am greatly indebted to the work of Catherine Hall. In addition to her major publications, the research project that she and Nicholas Draper have inspired and guided at UCL has thrust the question of slavery back to where it rightfully belongs: at the heart of our understanding of modern British history.