Empress

by Miles Taylor

  48. HL Debs, 151 (23 July 1858), 2010–11; ‘India bill’, Derby papers, Liverpool Record Office, 920 DER (15), 27/1, 147–54.

  49. Walter Bagehot, The English Constitution, ed. Miles Taylor (1867; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), ch. 2.

  50. ‘India bill’, Derby papers, Liverpool Record Office, 920 DER (15) 27/1.

  51. Lord Derby to Lord Stanley, 6 August 1858, ibid., 920 DER (15) 5/1.

  52. Morning Chronicle, 9 August 1858, 3; Benjamin Disraeli to Lord Derby, 13 August 1858, Derby papers, Liverpool Record Office, 920 DER (15) 5/1, 39a.

  53. Spencer Walpole to Lord Derby, 14 August 1858, ibid., 40–1; Lord Derby to Lord Stanley, 13 August 1858, ibid., 38–9.

  54. Lord Malmesbury to Lord Derby, 15 August 1858, 3rd Earl Malmesbury papers, Hampshire Record Office, 9M73/54, fols 285–6; cf. the copy in the Royal Archives which includes a long summary of the changes required by the queen: RA VIC/MAIN/N/19/38.

  55. Lord Malmesbury to Lord Stanley, 15 August 1858, 3rd Earl Malmesbury papers, Hampshire Record Office, 9M73/54, fols 286–7; Lord Malmesbury to Derby, 17 August 1858, ibid., fols 287–8; Queen Victoria to Lord Derby, 15 August 1858, RA VIC/MAIN/N/19/36 (draft); Martin, Life of the Prince Consort, iv, 284–7.

  56. Lord Derby to Lord Malmesbury, 18 August 1858, RA VIC/MAIN/N/19/41.

  57. The Times, 10 November 1858, 9; ibid., 19 November 1858, 10.

  58. Ibid., 18 October 1858, 12; cf. George Percy Badger, Government in its Relations with Education and Christianity in India (London: Smith, Elder & Co., 1858).

  59. The Times, 6 December 1858, 7; [Joseph Mullens], ‘The Queen’s Government and the Religions of India’, Eclectic Review 109 (February 1859), 131–5; James M’Kee, Letter to the Right Hon. Lord Stanley . . . on the Religious Neutrality of the Government of India (London: Nisbet, 1859), 12–13; H. B. Edwardes, Our Indian Empire: Its Beginning and End. A lecture Delivered to the Young Men’s Christian Association in Exeter Hall, 1860 (London: Seeley, Jackson and Halliday, 1886), 25–6, 32.

  60. Lord Palmerston to Queen Victoria, 12 December 1857, RA VIC/MAIN/N/16/36; Queen Victoria to Lord Canning, 18 May 1859, RA VIC/MAIN/N/21/99. For Canning’s enquiries in India, see the correspondence reprinted in ‘Honorary Distinctions to Native Chiefs and Others’, IOR, LP&S/15/1.

  61. Prince Albert to Sir Charles Wood, 16 May 1860, 29 May 1860, RA VIC/MAIN/N/23/85, 94.

  62. Canning to Wood, 19 July 1860 (‘ancestors’), RA VIC/MAIN/N/23/115; Canning to Wood, 12 December 1860 (‘Orientals’), IOR F78/LB5, fols 208–10 (copy); Wood to Prince Albert, 12 December 1860 (‘Sattara’), RA VIC/MAIN/N/24/26; Prince Albert to Charles Wood, 9 January 1861 (‘golden impossibility’), Halifax papers, Borthwick Institute for Archives, University of York, A4/72

  63. Canning to Wood, 20 January 1861, RA VIC/MAIN/N/24/75; cf. ‘Revised Table of Salutes’ (20 March 1857), Foreign Dept Proceedings, NAI, F. C. 57–8.

  64. For the Allahabad ceremony: ToI, 11 November 1861, 3. For the row over the Nizam, which nearly cost the British resident at Hyderabad his job, see: Lt. Col. Davidson to H. Durand, 1 November 1861, Foreign Dept Proceedings, NAI, 51–3, and the sequence of correspondence in IOR Mss Eur. D728/3–4.

  65. On the impact of Albert’s death, see: Helen Rappaport, Magnificent Obsession: Victoria, Albert and the Death that Changed the Monarchy (London: Hutchinson, 2011); and for the death and subsequent memorial to Charlotte Canning: Tracy Anderson, ‘The Lives and Afterlives of Charlotte, Lady Canning (1817–1861): Gender, Commemoration, and Narratives of Loss’ in Deborah Cherry (ed.), The Afterlives of Monuments (London: Routledge, 2014), 31–50.

  5 Victoria Beatrix

  1. [John Kaye], ‘The Royal Proclamation to India’, Blackwood’s Edinburgh Magazine 85, (January 1859), 11326.

  2. Proclamation of the Queen to the Princes, Chiefs, and People of India . . . Translated into the Native Languages of British India (Calcutta: Government of India, 1858). For details of the ceremonies: NAI, Foreign Dept (Political), 25 February 1859, 612–44; MSA, Political proceedings 1858, vol. 170, esp. fols 45–6, 61, 119, 125, 141–5.

  3. Addresses (approximate number of signatures in brackets) came from Bombay (120), Poona (1,215), Royapuram (Madras) (6,000), Murshidabad (200) and Khandesh (Bombay) (920): IOR/A/1/109–113; and from Masulipatam (Machilipatnam) (822): Mss Eur. G55/32.

  4. Dinshaw Wacha, Shells from the Sands of Bombay: Being my Recollections and Reminiscences, 1860–1875 (Bombay: K. T. Anklesaria, 1920), 168–9 (Union Jack). For Madras: Athenaeum, 4 November 1858, 526. On the difficulties of translation: Lord Elphinstone to Canning, 28 October 1858, MSA, Political proceedings (1858), vol. 170, esp. fol. 119. For the Calcutta illumination: ILN, 1 January 1859, 17.

  5. John Malcolm Ludlow, Thoughts on the Policy of the Crown Towards India (London: James Ridgway, 1859), 7, 11; Duke of Argyll, India under Dalhousie and Canning (London: Longmans, 1865), 106.

  6. [James Fitzjames Stephen], ‘Kaye’s History of the Indian Mutiny’, Fraser’s Magazine for Town and Country 70 (December 1864), 757–74.

  7. Thomas Metcalf, The Aftermath of Revolt: India 1857–1870 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1964); Lionel Knight, Britain in India, 1858–1947 (London: Anthem Press, 2012), 1–34.

  8. NAI Mint Records, 290, Resolution 28 October 1862.

  9. Mayo to the Duke of Argyll, 21 July 1871, NAI, Foreign Dept Proceedings, 15–24. For the background, see: Sanjay Garg, ‘Sikka and the Crown: Genesis of the Native Coinage Act, 1876’, Indian Economic and Social History Review 35 (1998), 359–80.

  10. On the ‘empire of the rupee’, see: W. H. Chaloner, ‘Currency Problems of the British Empire’ in B. Ratcliffe (ed.), Great Britain and Her World: Essays in Honour of W. O. Henderson (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1975), 179–207.

  11. George Otto Trevelyan, The Competition Wallah (London: Macmillan, 1864), 445.

  12. Charles Wood to Queen Victoria, 18 February 1860, RA VIC/MAIN/N/23/19.

  13. L. L. R. Hausburg, C. Stewart-Wilson and C. S. F. Crofton, The Postage and Telegraph Stamps of British India (London: Stanley Gibbons, 1907); Geoffrey Rothe Clarke, The Post Office of India and Its Story (London: John Lane, 1921).

  14. C. Stewart Wilson, British Indian Adhesive Stamps Surcharge for Native States, 2 vols (Calcutta: Philatelic Society of India, 1897–8), i.

  15. G. F. Edmonstone to the Chief Commissioner of the Punjab, 13 December 1858, NAI Home Dept Proceedings (Public), 71.

  16. Brian C. Smith, ‘Sir Henry Maine and the Government of India, 1862–87’, Journal of Indian History 41 (1963), 563–75; Gordon Johnson, ‘India and Henry Maine’ in Alan Diamond (ed.), The Victorian Achievement of Sir Henry Maine: A Centennial Reappraisal (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 376–88; Karuna Mantena, Alibis of Empire: Henry Maine and the Ends of Liberal Imperialism (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2010). On Stephen, see: K. J. M. Smith, James Fitzjames Stephen: Portrait of a Victorian Rationalist (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), ch. 6.

  17. Elizabeth Kolsky, ‘Codification and the Rule of Colonial Difference: Criminal Procedure in British India’, Law and History Review 23 (2005), 631–83; idem, Colonial Justice in British India: White Violence and the Rule of Law (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), chs 1–2.

  18. Reports of Monthly Meetings of the British Indian Association, 1859–61 (Calcutta: I. C. Bose), 18 (meeting of 6 April 1861).

  19. For the 1861 Act, and its amendment in 1872, see: A. C. Banerjee, English Law in India (New Delhi: Abhinav, 1984), 193. For Maine’s assertion of 24 January 1866: Minutes by Sir H. S. Maine, 1862–9: With a Note on Indian Codification, etc. (Calcutta: Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing, 1892), 69–70.

  20. The Indian Penal Code with notes by W. Morgan and A. G. MacPherson (Calcutta: G. Hay & Co., 1861).

  21. For the discussions in the Viceroy’s Council: ‘Proceedings of the Legislative Council of India’, 5 June 1858, cols 241–4, 3 July 1858, col. 30
1, IOR V/9/4.

  22. Indian Penal Code with Notes, 99–100.

  23. John D. Mayne, Commentaries on the Indian Penal Code, etc. (Madras: Higginbotham, 1861).

  24. V. S. Joshi, Vasude Balvant Phadke: First Indian Rebel Against British Rule (Bombay: D. S. Marathe, 1959), 120–1, 144–5.

  25. For the case, see: Julia Stephens, ‘The Phantom Wahhabi: Liberalism and the Muslim Fanatic in Mid-Victorian India’, Modern Asian Studies 47 (2013), 22–52.

  26. The Great Wahabi Case. A Full and Complete Report of the Proceedings and Debates in the Matters of Ameer Khan and Hashmadad Khan, etc. (Calcutta: R. Cambray & Co., 1899), 2; Fendall Currie, The Indian Criminal Codes . . . viz., the Penal Code Act XLV. of 1860, as Amended by Later Enactments, and the Code of Criminal Procedure Act X. of 1872 (London: J. Flack, 1872), 96–8; Joseph Vere Woodman, A Digest of Indian Law Cases, Containing High Court Reports, etc., 6 vols (Calcutta: Government Printing 1901), ii, 3147.

  27. The peak year of the reign was 1872 when of ninety-four cases, sixty-four came from India. Figures derived from ‘Return of all Appeals from Courts in India, Instituted Before the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council’, Parl. Papers (1852–3), Cd. 358, for the years 1833–52, and from ‘The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council Decisions’, www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKPC/, for the years 1853–1901. By the early twentieth century, it has been argued, the Committee functioned ‘primarily as an appellate court for India’: Rohit De, ‘“A Peripatetic World Court”: Cosmopolitan Courts, Nationalist Judges and the Indian Appeal to the Privy Council’, Law and History Review 32 (2014), 821–51. For the work in general of the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, see: P. A. Howell, The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, 1833–76 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979).

  28. James Fitzjames Stephen, Minute on the Administration of Justice in India (Calcutta: Home Secretariat Press, 1872), 88; Arthur Hobhouse, A Collection of Certain Notes and Minutes . . . May 15th 1872–April 17th 1877 (Calcutta: Government Press, 1906), 5 September 1872, 2; Act no. II (1863) ‘To regulate the admission of appeals to Her Majesty in Council from certain judgments and orders in Provinces not subject to the General Regulations’; Act no. VI (1874), ‘To consolidate and amend the law relating to appeals to the Privy Council from decrees of the Civil Courts’.

  29. W. Tayler, ‘Publicity the Guarantee for Justice; or, “the Silent Chamber” at Whitehall’, Journal of the East India Association 7 (1873), 47–78.

  30. E. B. Michell and R. B. Michell, The Practice and Procedure in Appeals from India to the Privy Council (Madras: Higginbotham, 1876), 2–4. In 1890, the Government of India advised that petitions for mercy destined for the queen should be disregarded if they were unlikely to reach London before the date set for execution: Foreign Dept Proceedings (International), NAI, 15 August 1890, 180.

  31. Woodman, A Digest of Indian Law Cases, i, 544–5. For a recent discussion of the case, see: Rohit De, ‘Constitutional Antecedents’ in Sujit Choudhury, Madhav Khosla and Pratap Bhanu Mehta (eds), The Oxford Handbook of the Indian Constitution (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016), 23–6.

  32. ‘Disposal of Memorials Sent by Certain Persons of Bombay to Her Majesty and the Authorities in England’, 30 April 1873, MSA, Pol. Proceedings, vol. 48, fols 61–146.

  33. Robin Moore, ‘The Abolition of Patronage in the Indian Civil Service and the Closure of Haileybury College’, Historical Journal 7 (1964), 246–57; J. M. Compton, ‘Open Competition and the Indian Civil Service’, 1854–76’, English Historical Review 83 (1968), 265–84; Clive Dewey, ‘The Making of the English Ruling Caste in the Indian Civil Service in the Era of Competitive Examination’, English Historical Review 88 (1973), 262–85.

  34. ‘Copy of the Memorials of Her Majesty’s Covenanted Civilians in India, Praying for the Redress of Certain Grievances’, Parl. Papers (1862), Cd. 230. For later criticism of the changes, see: J. S. Wyllie, A Letter to the Hon’ble Sir C. E. Trevelyan, K.C.B., on the Selection and Training of Candidates for H.M.’s Indian Civil Service (Calcutta: Home Secretariat, 1870); George Birdwood, Competition and the Indian Civil Service. A Paper Read Before the East India Association (London: H. & S. King, 1872).

  35. Wyllie, Letter to C. E. Trevelyan, 9; Alfred Cotterell Tupp, The Indian Civil Service and the Competitive System, a Discussion on the Examinations and the Training in England; and an Account of the Examinations in India, the Duties of Civilians, and the Organization of the Service, with a List of Civilians and other Appendices (London: R. W. Brydges, 1876), 123–4.

  36. QVJl., 20 October 1890.

  37. ‘Papers Relating to the Admission of Natives’, 13–17; ‘Report of the Public Service Commission, 1886–87’, Parl. Papers (1888), Cd. 5327, p. 21; HC Debs, 13 (2 June 1893), 134 (Wedderburn).

  38. HC Debs, 13 (2 June 1893), 114.

  39. T. A. Heathcote, ‘The Army of British India’ in David Chandler and Ian Beckett (eds), The Oxford Illustrated History of the British Army (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994), 386–91.

  40. ‘Correspondence during the year 1858, between His Royal Highness the Commander in Chief, and the President of the Board of Control, and the Secretary of State for War, etc.’, Parl. Papers (1860), Cd. 471; Duke of Cambridge to Prince Albert, 27 September 1858, RA VIC/MAIN/N/20/44–5; ‘Memorandum’ [copy], 16 October 1858, RA VIC/MAIN/N/20/70.

  41. ‘Report of the Commissioners Appointed to Inquire into the Organisation of the Indian Army’, Parl. Papers, (1859, session 1), Cd. 2515, xi–xii.

  42. Queen Victoria to Lord Derby, 5 February 1859, RA VIC/MAIN/N/21/26; Prince Albert to General Peel, 1 February 1859 (copy), 2 February 1859 (copy), RA VIC/MAIN/N/21/23–4; Duke of Cambridge to Lord Stanley, 30 March 1859 (copy), RA VIC/MAIN/N/21/72; Lord Derby to Queen Victoria, 6 February 1859, RA VIC/MAIN/N/21/27; 6 February 1859. General Charles Grey, Prince Albert’s private secretary, provided him with very full summaries of the Commission’s proceedings (12 January 1859) and its report (1 February 1860): Charles Grey papers, Durham University Library, GRE/D/I/9/111–36.

  43. Queen Victoria to Charles Wood, 16 July 1859, RA VIC/MAIN/N/21/139; Sir Charles Wood to Queen Victoria, 17 July 1859, RA VIC/MAIN/N/21/140; Queen Victoria to Charles Wood, 23 September 1859, RA VIC/MAIN/N/22/51.

  44. Peter Stanley, White Mutiny: British Military Culture in India, 1825–1875 (London: Hurst, 1998), ch. 6.

  45. ‘Copy of Papers Connected with the late Discontent Among the local European Troops in India’, Parl. Papers (1860), Cd. 169, qq. 21 (graffiti), 106 (dissatisfaction); ‘Return of the Number of Men of the European Local Troops in India, who have Taken their Discharge since 1858, etc’, Parl. Papers (1860), Cd. 48; HC Debs, 148 (12 February 1858), 1287 (Palmerston).

  46. Neale Porter, The Army of India Question (London: James Ridgway, 1860), 17–21.

  47. Charles Wood to Queen Victoria, 7 October 1859, RA VIC/MAIN/N/22/ 64. For Clyde, see: Adrian Greenwood, Victoria’s Scottish Lion: The Life of Colin Campbell, Lord Clyde (Stroud: Spellmount, 2015), 447–53; and for Mansfield, see: T. R. Moreman, ‘Mansfield, William Rose, First Baron Sandhurst (1819–1876)’, ODNB.

  48. QVJl., 26 July 1860.

  49. Peter Duckers, The British-Indian Army, 1860–1914 (Princes Risborough: Shire, 2003), 17.

  50. David Omissi, The Sepoy and the Raj: The Indian Army, 1860–1940 (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 1994), ch. 1; Heather Streets, Martial Races: The Military, Race and Masculinity in British Imperial Culture, 1857–1914 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2004), ch. 3. For a detailed case study of the Punjab, see: Tan Tai Yong, The Garrison State: The Military, Government and Society in Colonial Punjab (London: Sage, 2005), ch. 2; and Rajit K. Mazumder, The Indian Army and the Making of the Punjab (Delhi: Permanent Black, 2003), 15–18.

  51. For the Sikkim and Bhutan invasions, see: I. T. Prichard, The Administration of India from 1859 to 1868. The First Ten Years of Administration under the Crown, 2 vols (London: Macmillan, 1869), i, 82–4, ii, 1–43; H. Biddulph
, ‘The Umbeyla Campaign of 1863 and the Bhutan Expedition of 1865–6. Contemporary Letters of Colonel John Miller Adye’, Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research 19 (1940), 34–47. For the Abyssinian campaign, see: Volker Matthies, The Siege of Magdala: The British Empire Against the Emperor of Ethiopia (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2012).

  52. ‘Report of the Select Committee on the Army (India and colonies)’, Parl. Papers (1867–8), Cd. 197, vi.

  53. Calculated from the Indian censuses of 1871–2 and 1901.

  54. Charles Wood to Prince Albert, 3 January 1861, RA VIC/MAIN/N/24/37, Charles Wood to Prince Albert, 7 January 1861, RA VIC/MAIN/N/24/40. The queen eventually purchased the crown for £500 from Major Robert Tytler, into whose custody the crown was placed after the siege of Delhi, and it is now on display at Windsor Castle (RCIN 67236). See also: An Englishwoman in India: The Memoirs of Harriet Tytler, 1828–1858, ed. Anthony Sattin (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986), 176.

  55. Omar Khalidi, The British Residency in Hyderabad: An Outpost of the Raj, 1779–1948 (London: BACSA, 2005), 33–6.

  56. For an incomplete list, see: HC Debs, 118 (19 February 1903), 271–2.

  57. L. Bowring, Eastern Experiences (London: Henry S. King, 1871), 219.

  58. Canning to Lord Stanley, 20 October 1858, IOR, Photo Eur. 474; Canning to Charles Wood, 28 January 1860, IOR Mss Eur. F78/55/3, fols 57–63.

  59. Elgin to Charles Wood, 5 May 1862, IOR Mss Eur. F83/2, fols 101–6.

  60. For his career, see A. J. Arbuthnot, ‘Aitchison, Sir Charles Umpherston (1832–1896)’, rev. Ian Talbot, ODNB; C. U. Aitchison, A Collection of Treaties, Engagements, and Sunnuds Relating to India and Neighbouring Countries, 8 vols (Calcutta: Savielle, 1862–6).