One Hundred Poets, One Poem Each

by Peter Macmillan

  Translated literally, kakekotoba means ‘overlapping of words’ – effectively punning – but most non-Japanese scholars of classical Japanese studiously avoid using ‘pun’ as a translation, mostly because of the traditional view of the pun as being low-class. The standard English translation of the term to date is pivot word/phrase, which refers more specifically to when a word may be read as the continuation of what precedes it or as the beginning of what follows, producing two different readings. This translation is problematic, however, because kakekotoba is mostly defined in Japanese dictionaries with little or no reference to its function as a pivot word. By contrast, Japanese scholars recognize so called ‘pivot words’ as kakekotoba only when they also happen to function simultaneously as puns, tending to see the pivoting function more in relation to other rhetorical devices, such as prefaces (jokotoba) and associative words (engo), that may be at work in a poem.

  In poem 16, matsu (‘to pine’ and ‘pine tree’) is an example of a pivot word working in tandem with the preface and also as a pun. In poems 27 and 51, the words Izumigawa (Izumi River) and sashimo gusa (moxa) function as pivot words in tandem with the preface, although they are not puns semantically. Nevertheless, there is kind of aural punning at play: in poem 27, the sound of Izumi is echoed later in itsu mi, and in poem 51 the sound of sashimo is repeated too. A slightly different kind of verbal play occurs in poem 58, whereby the words kaze fukeba (literally, ‘when the wind blows’; ‘the wind whispers’ in the translation) lead on to soyo (literally, ‘I told you so’; ‘I swear of my love’ in the translation) and onomatopoeically echoes the sound the wind makes.

  I have chosen to use ‘pun’ as a translation for kakekotoba with the Japanese in brackets after it, but another option would be not to translate the word at all as in the case, for example, of waka, haiku, etc. It is an extremely complex term with a wide variety of variations in usage over a long period of time. It should be noted, too, that many of the terms used to describe rhetorical devices were not coined until the Meiji period (1868–1912) and then applied to classical waka poetry, which do not always fit neatly within the definitions given to them.

  kana and kanji (Chinese characters) comprise the Japanese writing system. Kana are syllabic Japanese scripts in contrast to logographic Chinese characters. Originally invented for writing Japanese words in particular, each kana character corresponds to one sound in the Japanese language. Because of the enormous number of homonyms in Japanese, the creation of kana greatly facilitated the development of waka poetry, especially kakekotoba. A word written in a Chinese character allows for only one meaning, whereas using kana enables a word to be read with all its homonyms. For example, the word for pine tree, matsu, also means ‘to wait’ or ‘pine for’, a multi-layered sense that can be conveyed by kana but not by kanji. Where kana are especially useful are in cases where the written form is the same but the pronunciation of the words differs. A good example is poem 27, where the first part of Izumigawa (Izumi River) puns with itsu mi ka (literally, ‘when will I see you?’) as zu and tsu would have been written in the same way in the Heian period. (See commentary to poem 27 for more on this.)

  kanji: See previous entry.

  kanshi (poetry in Chinese): Poetry written in the Chinese language was called kanshi or karauta, in contrast to yamato uta (poetry of Yamato, Japanese poetry). Chinese learning and literature enjoyed enormous prestige in the early period and account for the majority of the writing by Japanese authors in the eighth and ninth centuries. Chinese poetry also had a profound influence on Japanese poetry, especially at the level of themes and imagery. See poems 23, 29, 31, 36, 73, 79 and 94.

  kinuginu no uta (‘morning-after’ poem): Custom demanded that courtiers send a poem to their beloved after a night spent in their company – known as a ‘morning-after’ poem. These were typically meant to reassure the lady that the lover remained true to his beloved after a night together. The word kinuginu is the plural of the word for clothes, kinu. Courtiers of the time used the clothes they wore during the day as bedding at night; a couple would use their combined clothing. In the morning, they put on their clothes again before parting, leading to the phrase kinuginu no wakare, to describe their parting (wakare) in the morning, and the poem (uta) that expressed their grief at parting as kinuginu no uta. Examples include poems 43 and 50.

  Kin’yōshū (Kin’yō wakashū; Collection of Golden Leaves): An imperial waka anthology compiled in 1124–7 by Toshiyori (poem 74) at the command of the Retired Emperor Shirakawa (r. 1073–87). Although the two first versions were rejected by the emperor, the second version, completed in 1126, was widely circulated and became popular among the literary figures of the day. The third version, completed in 1127, received imperial approval, but the emperor kept it to himself and it was not circulated further, as a result of which the second version is still regarded as the standard one.

  Kokinshū (Kokin wakashū; Collection of Waka Ancient and Modern): This was the first imperially ordered waka anthology of native poetry in Japan. In 905 Emperor Daigo gave the order for its compilation to the poets Tomonori (poem 33), Tsurayuki (poem 35), who was the principal author, Mitsune (poem 29) and Tadamine (poem 30). Many of the poems in the One Hundred Poets were either culled from the Kokinshū or else heavily influenced by it. See, for example, poems 5, 7, 8, 10, 12, 26, 30, 35, 37, 42, 91, 93 and 94.

  kotobagaki (headnote): When poems were anthologized, they were often accompanied by a prose headnote (kotobagaki) that explained the circumstances of composition. Poems about which nothing was known were simply given the headnote ‘topic unknown’ (dai shirazu). Many headnotes limit themselves to stating the topic and occasion of composition, but some provide long, detailed accounts, sometimes incorporating fictional elements. A significant characteristic of the One Hundred Poets (and of similar selections of poems) is that the headnotes that originally accompanied the poems in the source texts are omitted. This may be because the poems were meant to be appreciated as they were, without background information, or because most readers were expected to already know the context of composition.

  lunisolar calendar: The ancient Japanese imported from China a modified lunar (lunisolar) calendar consisting of twelve months of twenty-nine or thirty days. As in the Gregorian calendar, each season consisted of three months, though the New Year began in what would be February, roughly a month to a month and a half later than the Gregorian calendar. The twelve-month sequence is as follows: (1) New Year; (2) mid spring; (3) late spring; (4) early summer; (5) midsummer; (6) late summer; (7) early autumn; (8) mid autumn; (9) late autumn; (10) early winter; (11) midwinter; (12) late winter.

  makura kotoba (pillow words): These are epithets used in conjunction with certain words as conventional embellishments, forming a ‘pillow’ for the word in question. Used for their sound, meaning or associations, they gave poets a way to add resonance and heighten the rhetorical effect of their poems. Examples include chihayaburu (raging) for kami (the gods) and hisakata no (used of the sky above) for sora (sky), kumo (clouds) and tsuki (moon). The meaning of many of the most ancient pillow words has been lost or is unclear (such as hisakata no above or ashibiki, used in tandem with ‘mountain’ or ‘mountain bird’), making their translation problematic. Many ‘newer’ words were created in the time of the eighth-century Man’yōshū, but they are less obscure because their connection with the words they introduce – sound repetition or metaphor – is more obvious. Though particularly common in poems of the Man’yōshū and other early writings, pillow words continued to be used throughout waka’s long history for their archaic resonance. The link between the pillow word and the noun they modify can be phonetic (sound repetition), metaphorical or purely conventional. See poems 17 and 33 for examples of poems that make use of pillow words.

  Man’yōshū (Collection of Ten Thousand Leaves): This is the earliest-surviving collection of Japanese poetry. While the earliest poems go back to at least the early sixth century, the last datable poem was compose
d in 759 and the editing was completed in c.770. It is believed to have been compiled over many decades by numerous people, although the details of the process remain uncertain. The final collection of twenty volumes and over 4,500 poems is believed to have been compiled by the poet Yakamochi (poem 6). Several poems in the One Hundred Poets were taken from, or are based on, poems in the Man’yōshū.

  matsu onna (waiting woman): Poems about waiting for a (male) lover were known as ‘waiting woman’ (matsu onna) poems. The motif first became established in China during the Six Dynasties (222–589), and later became a prominent motif in waka too. Men also composed poems on this motif by posing as a woman, as in poems 21 and 85. Indeed, it was not uncommon for a man to adopt the persona of a woman when composing a poem.

  mitate (elegant confusion): Deliberately mistaking one thing for another (frost for blossoms, dew for gems, etc.) was considered extremely elegant and thus it was a frequently used poetic device in poetry of the Heian period. While the device is applied to classical Japanese poetry, the term mitate was not coined until the early-modern period. See poem 31, for example, in which the poet confuses the glow of the snow for the moonlight of the dawn. See also poems 29 and 96.

  Noh: A major form of Japanese musical drama, Noh has been performed since the fourteenth century, and is still regularly performed today. Traditionally, a Noh programme includes five plays with comic interludes (kyōgen); an okina Noh play, usually celebratory and centred on a venerable old man, may be presented in the very beginning, especially at New Year and other special occasions. Noh plays may be based on classic works of literature, such as the Kokinshū, The Tales of Ise and The Tale of Genji. Much of the pleasure of the plays derives from the poetic language sung in a rhythmic style and the many literary allusions. Zeami Motokiyo (c.1363–c.1443) was the foremost writer of Noh plays and the one who brought the form to its artistic peak. He is also famous for his numerous theoretical works on Noh and its performance. Scholars attribute some fifty plays to him.

  pivot word/phrase: A word or phrase that acts as a pivot, meaning that it can be read as the continuation of what precedes it or as the beginning of what follows. See the commentary for poems 3, 9, 18, 19, 27, 46, 48, 94 and 100. It can also function as a pun (see kakekotoba).

  renga: Linked verse; see the Introduction, here.

  sedōka: A poem consisting of two three-line stanzas each consisting of a pattern of 5-7-7 syllables. See also the Introduction, here.

  Senzaishū (Senzai wakashū; Collection of a Thousand Years): An imperial waka anthology first compiled in 1187 by Teika’s father Shunzei (poem 83) and revised and completed the following year.

  Shikashū (Shika wakashū; Collection of Verbal Flowers): The sixth imperial waka anthology, compiled in 1151 by Akisuke (poem 79).

  Shin-chokusenshū (Shin-chokusen wakashū; New Imperial Waka Collection): An imperial waka anthology, compiled in 1235 by Teika, who also wrote the preface.

  Shin-kokinshū (Shin-kokin wakashū; New Collection of Waka Ancient and Modern): The eighth imperial waka anthology, compiled by six members of the Bureau of Poetry: Teika, Ietaka (poem 98), Jakuren (poem 87), Masatsune (poem 94), Fujiwara no Ariie (1155–1216) and Minamoto no Michitomo (1171–1237). It was initially presented to the emperor in 1205 but not completed until 1210. The Retired Emperor Gotoba (poem 99), who commissioned the volume, edited and re-edited it himself during the period of his exile. Both the emperor’s version and the earlier version of 1210 still exist, though the latter is regarded as the standard one.

  Shūishū (Shūi wakashū; Collection of Waka Gleanings): The third of the official waka anthologies, compiled in 1005–11; Kinto (poem 55) was involved in editing it.

  Six Poetic Geniuses (Rokkasen): The six poets named by Tsurayuki (poem 35) in the preface to the Kokinshū as the great poets of the early Heian period, a group that later became known as the Six Poetic Geniuses. All six of them have poems in the Kokinshū, and all but one, Otomo Kuronushi, have poems in the One Hundred Poets. These include Kisen (poem 8), Ono no Komachi (poem 9), Henjo (poem 12), Narihira (poem 17) and Yasuhide (poem 22). In time, this list was superseded by later groupings, including the Thirty-Six Poetic Geniuses.

  The Tale of Genji (Genji monogatari): Written in the early years of the eleventh century at the height of the Heian period, this is the most famous novel in Japanese literature. The author was Murasaki Shikibu (poem 57), a noblewoman and lady-in-waiting, who beautifully depicts the lifestyle of the courtiers of her day. The novel focuses on the romantic life of its central character, Hikaru Genji or ‘Shining Genji’, while shedding a fascinating light on the customs and mores of aristocratic society of the time. In chapter 2, for instance, the hero and his male friends discuss women and marriage in an exchange that can be thought of as a sort of Heian man’s guide to dating and courtship. The Tale of Genji was required reading for all those who considered themselves poets, and Teika’s father Shunzei (poem 83) was the first to stress the importance of studying it for poets. Some of Teika’s best-known poems are based on passages from Genji, and one can feel its influence in many poems in the One Hundred Poets (see, for example, poems 8, 12, 35, 41, 57, 64, 66 and 78).

  The Tale of the Heike (Heike monogatari): One of the great classics of medieval Japanese literature, The Tale of the Heike, written some time before 1330, is an epic account of the struggle between the Taira and Minamoto clans for control of Japan at the end of the twelfth century. The main theme of the story is the Buddhist law of impermanence, especially the fleeting nature of fortune, illustrated by the fall of the powerful Taira clan. The work is a compilation of many versions passed down orally by biwa-playing bards known as biwa hōshi or ‘lutenist priests’. The Tale of the Heike has greatly influenced Japanese culture over the centuries, from Noh plays to woodblock prints, and is frequently referenced in modern works.

  The Tales of Ise (Ise monogatari): Along with The Tale of Genji and the Kokinshū, The Tales of Ise is one of the three most important works in classical Japanese literature and knowledge of it is a prerequisite for understanding Japanese cultural and literary history. Primarily read as poem tales (uta monagatari), the work comprises 125 short narratives that function as suitable contexts for the mostly love poems, many of which depict the famous real-life poet, Ariwara no Narihira (poem 17). The aggregate of the diverse episodes creates a unified perspective of the cultural mores, aesthetics and the Way of Love of early-Heian aristocratic society. The work became a basic text in the education sentimentale of the Japanese and a fundamental part of the literary education for poets and men and women of learning for a thousand years. It has influenced waka, Noh, fiction, diaries and all aspects of literature and art since it was written.

  The Tales of Yamato (Yamato monogatari): This loosely structured collection of tales of aristocratic life, compiled around 951, comprises vignettes of poets, including several from the One Hundred Poets, providing a record of court life in the early decades of the tenth century.

  tanka: A poem (waka) of thirty-one syllables arranged in five lines in an alternating pattern of five and seven syllables; see the Introduction, here.

  Thirty-Six Poetic Geniuses (Sanjūrokkasen): Fujiwara no Kinto (poem 55) compiled an anthology called the Sanjūrokuninsen (Selection of Thirty-Six Poets) in 1009–12, choosing the best poems of thirty-six poets. The collection was extremely popular and the poets later became known as the Sanjūrokkasen or Thirty-Six Poetic Geniuses (literally, ‘poets of unworldly greatness’), the first of many similar series of ‘thirty-six’. A more accurate translation would be the ‘thirty-six immortals of poetry’, though over the centuries some have proved less ‘immortal’ than others.

  Kinto’s idea was much copied, leading to a plethora of selections of thirty-six poets. Two of the most famous are Fujiwara no Norikane’s (1107–65) Gorokurokusen (literally, ‘six multiplied by six’), of whom the poets were known as the Chūko Sanjūrokkasen (Thirty-Six Poetic Geniuses of the Late Classical Period), and the Nyōbō Sanjū
rokunin uta-awase (Poetry Tournament of Thirty-Six Women Poets), compiled in the Kamakura period, of whom the poets were known as the Nyōbō Sanjūrokkasen (Thirty-Six Women Poetic Geniuses). The poets in these various series were widely depicted in Japanese painting and later woodblock prints. And the number thirty-six became a magical formula in Japanese culture, used in endless ways all the way down to the Meiji period, one of the most celebrated examples being Hokusai’s Thirty-Six Views of Mount Fuji (c.1830–32). (Poem 4 inspired one of Hokusai’s prints – see commentary to that poem. See also Six Poetic Geniuses.)

  Thirty-Six Poetic Geniuses of the Late Classical Period (Chūko Sanjūrokkasen): See previous entry.

  Thirty-Six Women Poetic Geniuses (Nyōbō Sanjūrokkasen): See Thirty-Six Poetic Geniuses.

  utamakura (place names; literally, ‘poem pillows’): A rhetorical device whereby famous locations were used in poetry for their rich cultural associations. For example, Mount Yoshino, near Nara, was connected with deep snow, Sumiyoshi was associated with pines and the Sumiyoshi deity, and so forth. During the Heian period, the term utamakura seems to have referred to poetic diction in general, but from the late Heian period onwards it came to refer specifically to place names. Among the famous places mentioned in One Hundred Poets are Mount Kagu (poem 2), Tago Bay (poem 4), the Kasuga Shrine (poem 7), Uji (poems 8 and 64), the Osaka Barrier (poems 10, 25 and 62), Mount Tsukuba (poem 13), the Tatsuta River (poems 17 and 69), Sumiyoshi Bay (poem 18), Naniwa (poems 19, 20 and 88), Mount Ogura (poem 26), Yoshino (poems 31 and 94), Ama no Hashidate (poem 60), Mount Mimuro (poem 69) and Awaji Island (poem 78), to name but a few. Their main associations are explained in the annotations to the poems in question while the maps here show their actual location.