Anatomy Lessons From the Great Masters
Page 6
The posterior triangle of the neck (G) is formed by the edge of the trapezius (F), the clavicle (A), and the side of the large neck muscle, the sternocleidomastoideus (H). Notice how this triangle deepens and widens when the arm is in a slightly forward position, as on the left. On the right, however, where the arm is pulled back, the triangle is reduced to a mere slit. If you stand in front of a mirror and observe these movements in your own body, you will remember them.
Michelangelo Buonarotti (1475-1564)
STUDY FOR A BATHER
pen touched with white
16 3/8″ × 11″ (415 × 280 mm)
British Museum, London
Scapula
The scapula or shoulder blade acts as a floating and participating base or platform for the movements of the shoulder girdle. This flat, triangular-shaped bone could be thought of as a triangle moving upon an egg, as it shifts across the upper half of the rib cage.
The vertebral or inner border (A) of the scapula is easily traced from the superior (upper) angle (B) to the dark accent of the inferior (lower) angle (C). The inferior angle presses out against the edge of the overlapping latissimus dorsi (D). The superior angle is held into the chest wall by the trapezius (E).
Observe the rhythmic movement that Rubens has given the middle portion of the deltoid (F) as it bulges from its origin in the acromion process (G) of the scapula in lifting to a horizontal position. If you follow the upper edge of the scapular portion (H) of the deltoid, you will find the edge of the spine of the scapula to which it is attached. The supraspinatus (I) and the infraspinatus (J) steady the head of the humerus in the glenoid cavity of the scapula and assist in the outward rotation and abduction of the arm.
The right arm is lowered to the front and the scapula moves with it. Rubens has accented (K) the inner end of the spine of the scapula, which also serves to indicate the direction of the entire shoulder blade. If you follow this point to the insertion of the middle portion of the deltoid (L) at the acromion process (M), you will discover the curve of the spine of the scapula (K-M). The bulge of the teres major (N), held in place by the latissimus dorsi (O), gives us the inferior angle of the scapula (P).
Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640)
STUDY OF A RIVER GOD FOR THE FOUR RIVERS
black chalk heightened with white
17 7/8″ × 17 1/2″ (454 × 445 mm)
Victoria and Albert Museum, London
Trapezius
Michelangelo was fascinated by the many variations of bones and muscles in the upper back. In this figure we can clearly see the broad, flat, four-sided triangle of the trapezius. Follow its center line from its origin at the base of the skull (A), down along the spine, through the seventh cervical vertebra (B), to the base of the triangle at the twelfth thoracic vertebra of the spine (C) where it overlaps the triangular aponeurosis of the latissimus (D).
Now move your pencil up along the right-hand side of the trapezius as it curves over the spinal muscles (E), over the bulge of the rhomboids (F), and over the upper and inner edge of the scapula (G), where a dimple clues you to the root of its spine. Michelangelo indicates the trapezius’ insertion in the scapula by deep shaded lines that lead to its outer limits in the acromion process (H).
On the left, you can also see a series of convex lines carrying the trapezius (I) to the acromion process (J) of the scapula. The spine of the scapula (K) is clearly outlined by the protruding muscles. Below, we can see the infraspinatus (L), the edge of the teres major (M), and the latissimus dorsi (N) moving over the teres major and the base or inferior angle of the scapula.
As you learn to analyze these drawings of the masters, you begin to see how each great artist has made subtle personal selections from his extensive knowledge of anatomy, applying timeless principles of design to the drawings.
Michelangelo Buonarotti (1475-1564)
STANDING NUDE, SEEN FROM THE BACK
pen and bistre
15″ × 7 1/2″ (381 × 189 mm)
Albertina, Vienna
Rhomboids
The names given to muscles can help in recalling important things about their shape and their functions. Muscles are named for a variety of reasons. The rhomboids (A) are named for their shape: a parallelogram in which the angles are oblique and the adjacent sides unequal. The smaller side of the rhomboid is the vertical line (B), where it originates in the lower four cervical and upper five thoracic vertebrae of the spine. The larger side of the muscle is at its insertion into the inner border of the scapula (C).
The infraspinatus (D) is named for its location below the spine of the scapula; the triceps (E) for its three internal divisions; the sternocleidomastoideus (F) for its origin in the sternum and clavicle and insertion in the mastoid process of the temporal bone; the levator anguli scapulae (G) beneath the trapezius for its function in raising the scapula; and the supinator longus (H) for its rotating function and its long size.
When the arms are placed behind the back in an extended position, as in this drawing of Michelangelo, the rhomboids (A) stand out and can be distinguished from the overlying mass of the middle portion of the trapezius (I).
Functionally, the smaller rhomboid minor above and the larger rhomboid major below may be regarded as a single muscle. Together with the middle portion of the trapezius, they retract the scapula and bring the shoulders backward to a position of “attention.” As the rhomboids retract the scapula inward, a slight counterbalancing forward and steadying motion outward is begun by its antagonist, the serratus anterior (J).
If you think of the muscles and their groups as individual in size, shape, direction, location, and function, they will become more than just lumps, ridges, or depressions. You will see them as important participants in the varied design of the body.
Michelangelo Buonarotti (1475-1564)
STUDY FOR ONE OF THE RESURRECTED OF THE LAST JUDGMENT
black chalk heightened with white
11 1/2″ × 9 1/4″ (290 × 235 mm)
British Museum, London
Infraspinatus
In this drawing, the upper arm is moved forward in flexion alongside the rib cage. The mass (A) of the infraspinatus and the teres minor beneath it (its smaller companion muscle), which are outward rotators, are inactive.
The barely discernible triangular mass of the infraspinatus has been indicated by a line of shading (B) that also marks the rear or posterior edge of the deltoid (C), inserting into the scapula. Behind, the trapezius (D) crosses over the base of the spine (E) and inner border of the scapula. Below the infraspinatus (A), the smaller mass of the teres major (F) is cradled by the mass of the latissimus dorsi (G).
If a fly were to suddenly land on the knee of Van Dyck’s model and she were to fling her arm out to the side, the infraspinatus (A), together with the teres minor and the supraspinatus (H), would help hold the head of her humerus (I) in its scapular joint as well as assist in outward rotation of her arm. Notice how the shape of the ball of the humerus is reflected in the highlight on the middle portion of the deltoid.
Forms are structured to protect important functions of the body. The muscles do double duty in this respect by both moving the bones and protecting the joints.
Anthony Van Dyck (1599-1641)
STUDIES OF A WOMAN SLEEPING
black chalk heightened with white, retouched with red chalk
12 1/4″ × 14 7/8″ (310 × 378 mm)
Biblioteca Nacional, Madrid
Teres Major
The figure Carracci has drawn might be in the act of flinging an object. The teres major (A) helps initiate this action by assisting the latissimus dorsi (B) in inwardly rotating the arm in order to fling it forward.
Note how Carracci’s sweeping lines harmonize with the contour of the rib cage, the direction of the muscle fibers, and the forward motion of the arm. Imagine the contraction and tension set up by the posterior origin of the teres major in the inferior angle of the scapula (C) on the one hand, and by its insertion in the anterio
r side of the humerus (D) on the other.
The latissimus dorsi (B) holds the bottom of the scapula to the rib cage in the back and curves under the teres major (A), moving with it to its nearby insertion (E) in the humerus. Together with the pectoralis major (F), the teres major (A) and the forward portion of the latissimus dorsi form the rear of the armpit.
The arm is sustained in this upward position by the deltoid (G), which inserts halfway down the humerus (H), and by the supraspinatus (I), moving from beneath the trapezius to the greater tuberosity (J) of the humerus bone. From below, the pectoralis major (K) converges upward to its position (L) in the line of anterior insertions in the humerus bone of the arm. This slightly irregular line of insertions leads us to the summit of the shoulder and to the acromion process (M) of the scapula.
If you run a curved line through the nipples (N-O) and around the inferior angle of the scapula (C), you can feel the contour of the cylinder of the rib cage beneath the muscles. To draw this mass in perspective, visualize the rib cage as a block. Use these same landmarks as a series of points or edges for the blocks, and let them converge to vanishing points in space.
Annibale Carracci (1560-1609)
STUDY OF A NUDE
12 11/16″ × 9 1/4″ (321 × 231 mm)
Reproduced by gracious permission of Her Majesty the Queen
Royal Library, Windsor
Latissimus Dorsi
Here we see Fuseli’s figure at the beginning or wind-up phase of the act of throwing. His right leg is firmly supported and the left leg has just given an upward and forward impetus to the rotating motion that is about to occur in the rib cage and shoulder girdle.
In the arm on the left, the great weight of the rock presses down along the humerus (A) to its insertion in the scapula (B). The superior angle of the scapula (C), and its overlying supraspinatus muscle, are thrust out against the supporting trapezius (D).
Follow the edge of the latissimus dorsi (E) with your pencil. Its strong fibers envelop the inferior angle of the scapula (F) and the finger-like serratus anterior (G). Then it outlines the side of the rib cage (H), and moves into its origin at the high point (I) and posterior third of the iliac crest, and the lower six thoracic vertebrae (J).
The line of insertion (K) of the fleshy fibers of the latissimus dorsi marks the border of its aponeurotic triangle and bulging spinal muscles (L). On the right, Fuseli has united the longissimus dorsi (M) and the exaggerated mass of the serratus posterior inferior (N) from under the latissimus dorsi. The strong plane break at the side of the latissimus dorsi (O) draws our attention to the action of its inferior fibers in helping to pull down the shoulder and the humerus. Together with the rotation of the rib cage and the force of gravity, the latissimus dorsi will join the pectoralis major and the posterior deltoid (P) in flinging the humerus, the upper arm, and the rock down to the right.
Carry on your study of anatomy at places like the athletic field, the gym, and the basketball court, where you can freely observe, sketch, and analyze similar actions of the body.
Henry Fuseli (1741-1825)
POLYPHEMUS HURLING THE ROCK AT ODYSSEUS
lead pencil and wash
18 1/8″ × 11 7/8″ (460 × 300 mm)
Auckland City Art Gallery, New Zealand
Pectoralis Major
When the arm is raised above the head, as in Michelangelo’s drawing, we clearly see the changes that take place in the form of the pectoralis (A) as it follows the movement of the arm and shoulder girdle.
The lower portion of the pectoralis (A) converges from its origin in the sternum (B) and lateral surface of the fourth and fifth ribs (C) to a tendon that moves over the pectoralis minor (D), to its insertion in the upper humerus bone (E). The pectoralis acts in downward and forward movements of the arm. The edge of this vertically elongated pectoralis (F), together with the front edge of the latissimus dorsi (G), the side of the thorax (H), the serratus anterior (I), and the inner arm (J), give us a clear outline of the walls of the armpit or axilla.
The upper pectoralis (K), by its origin in the clavicle, connects to the shoulder girdle. The action of this portion of the pectoralis varies with the position of the arm. When the arm is down, it gives you the hunching motion of the shoulders. When the arm is horizontal, as in this drawing, it acts as an adductor, carrying the arm in and to the front. As the arm is raised above the horizontal, which the right arm here is approaching, the line of pull of the upper clavicular fibers of the pectoralis shifts above the center of the shoulder joint, and these fibers cease to adduct and instead become abductors of the humerus.
The basis of muscular function is the ability of fibers to contract, shorten, and to pull the bones. Direction of bone movement is influenced by the relation of the line of pull of the muscle to the joint structure. The great masters understood bodily function, and when we study them closely, we can see how they applied this knowledge to their drawings.
Michelangelo Buonarotti (1475-1564)
STUDY OF THE NUDE YOUTH OVER THE PROPHET DANIEL FOR THE SISTINE CHAPEL CEILING
red chalk
13 3/16″ × 9 3/16″ (335 × 233 mm)
Gift in memory of Henry G. Dalton by his nephews George S. Kendrick and Harry D. Kendrick
Cleveland Museum of Art
Deltoid
The complex structure of the triangular-shaped deltoid, together with the arrangement of its fibers and attachments, gives it a potential for great strength without undue bulk.
In Pontormo’s drawing, the arm of the figure on the right is raised just above the horizontal. The action of raising the arm (or the abduction of the humerus) is carried out by the entire deltoid muscle, up to shoulder level. Above this, any upward motion is due to rotation of the scapula (A). Forward movement or medial rotation is aided by the anterior portion (B) of the deltoid. With two little lines, Pontormo shows the middle portion (C) going to its origin in the acromion process (D) of the scapula. The line of the anterior portion (E) of the deltoid goes inward behind the mass of the acromion process (D) to its origin in the outer third of the clavicle. The outward movement of this line of the deltoid curves in front of the biceps (F) to meet the fibers of the middle (C) and the posterior (G) portions of the deltoid, to insert about halfway along the humerus (H).
The posterior portion of the deltoid (G) helps the backward extension and rotation of the arm. A shaded line (I) points to the origin of this posterior portion in the spine of the scapula (J).
In the figure at the lower left, follow Pontormo’s structural clues that describe the deltoid. Note the acromion process (K) and origin of the mid-portion (C); the clavicle (L) and origin of the anterior portion (B); and the curve of the posterior deltoid (G) moving in over both the long (M) and lateral (N) heads of the triceps, joining the middle (C) and anterior (B) fibers of the deltoid to go between the triceps and the lateral head of the biceps (O), and going on to its insertion in the humerus. You will find such anatomical shorthand throughout the works of the great masters.
Jacopo Pontormo (1494-1556)
NUDE STUDIES
red chalk heightened with white
16″ × 8 7/8″ (406 × 225 mm)
Pierpont Morgan Library, New York
Landmarks, Anterior Aspect
When studying anatomy, you may be confused by the many different names used for the same bony or muscular landmark. You are presented with layman’s terms, teacher’s pet names, descriptive terms of origin, insertion, function, terms in English, Latin names, and complicated medical terminology. Until you can sort out and utilize the terms that are most useful and meaningful to you, you may find it easier to see these landmarks in terms of their relationships to each other.
In this fine example by Tiepolo, notice the overall direction formed by the position of the landmarks. They form a rough fanlike circle of protrusions, hollows, and folds in the upper body. Beginning with the handle of the fan at the base of the sternum, this mass of synonymous names may be organized into an ea
sily remembered circle as follows:
A. Base of sternum, pit of stomach, infrasternal notch, epigastric depression
B. Inframammary furrow
C. Armpit, axillary fold, axilla
D. Deltoid furrow, delpectoral line
E. Infraclavicular fosset
F. Salt box, supraclavicular fosset, posterior triangle of neck
G. Sternoclavicular fosset
H. Pit of neck, suprasternal notch, jugular notch
Upon observing such an arrangement, you might then notice the variations of values, shapes, sizes, and directions of each landmark in relation to the direction of the light and the model’s individual structure. You may also consider the relationships of scale, balance, harmony, and unity that Tiepolo gave to these landmarks and begin to apply them to your own drawings.
Giovanni Battista Tiepolo (1696-1770)
NUDE STUDY
red and white chalk on tinted paper
10 5/8″ × 7 1/4″ (270 × 185 mm)
Staatsgalerie, Stuttgart
Landmarks, Posterior Aspect
Let us see how Raphael handles the posterior landmarks of the shoulder girdle and how the changing positions of the arm can affect these forms.
Follow the upper trapezius (B) downward from its origin in the superior curved line of the occipital protuberance (A). Protruding from beneath the trapezius, a little triangle indicates the levator anguli scapulae (C) at work in raising (as its name implies) the upper angle of the scapula (D). The middle part of the trapezius (E) covers this area of the scapula and the supraspinatus that originates there.