by Hew Strachan
95 Fischer, ‘Kaiser Wilhelm II und der deutschen Politik vor 1914’, in Röhl (ed.), Der Ort Kaiser Wilhelms II, 264–8.
96 Dedijer, Road to Sarajevo, 155–8; Fischer, War of Illusions, 221–3.
97 McDonald, United government, 187.
98 Siegelbaum, Politics of industrial mobilization, 13–14; also Linke, Militärgeschichtliche Mitteilungen, 32 (1982), 11; D. Geyer, Russian imperialism, 307–9.
99 Lieven, Russia and the origins, 90–100, 126–32; on Russia generally in this period, see Pares, Fall of the Russian monarchy.
100 C. Jay Smith, Russian struggle for power, 63–5.
101 Fischer, War of illusions, 330–54.
102 McDonald, United government, 190–5.
103 Williamson, Politics of grand strategy, 335–8.
104 Egmont Zechlin, ‘Cabinet versus economic warfare in Germany’ in Koch (ed.), Origins, 199.
105 David Jones, ‘Imperial Russia’s forces at war’, in Millett and Murray, Military effectiveness, i. 265–6; Stone, European society, 334–5; Knox, With the Russian army, vol. i. p. xviii; D. Geyer, Russian imperialism, 200–1.
106 Schmidt-Richberg, Der Regierungszeit Wilhelms II, 38.
107 Jarausch, Central European History, II (1969)’ 59.
108 Mommsen, ‘The topos of inevitable war in Germany in the decade before 1914’, in Berghahn and Kitchen (eds.), Germany in the age of total war, 40; also Jarausch, Enigmatic chancellor, 146–7.
109 Jarausch, Enigmatic chancellor, 96.
110 Herwig, Luxury fleet, 78; Kennedy, Anglo-German antagonism, 357–8, gives slightly different figures.
111 Berghahn, Germany and the approach of war, 156–60; Fischer, War of illusions, 355–68.
112 In addition to the works listed in nn. 1 and 59 above, the following have been of general assistance throughout this section: Evans and Pogge von Strandmann (eds.), Coming of the first world war ; Geiss, July 1914 ; id., Journal of Contemporary History, I; (1966), 75–91; Jarausch, Central European History, II (1969), 48–76; Kennedy (ed.), War plans ; Stone, Journal of Contemporary History, I (1966), 153–70; Langdon, July 1914 ; Thompson, In the eye of the storm ; Trumpener, Central European History, IX (1976), 58–85; Williamson, ‘Vienna and July 1914’, in Williamson and Pastor (eds.), War and Society in East Central Europe, v.9–36; K. Wilson, Policy of the Entente; id. (ed.), Decisions for war.
113 Taylor, Politics in wartime, 68; for a full account of the circumstances of the assassination, see Dedijer, Road to Sarajevo. Also, on Young Bosnia, see Wayne S. Vucinich, ‘Mlada Bosna and the First World War’, in Kann et al. (eds.), The Habsburg empire.
114 In addition to the works already cited, see Zeman, Break-up, 24–34.
115 Petrovich, Modern Serbia.
116 Geiss, in Koch (ed.), Origins, 83.
117 Peball (ed.), Conrad, 148.
118 Ritter, Sword and the sceptre, ii. 229; see also Peball (ed.), Conrad, 128, 148, 152.
119 Dedijer, Road to Sarajevo, 145.
120 Stone, Past and Present, 33 (1966), 103–11.
121 Jerabek, Potiorek, 76–9; Leslie, ‘Antecedents of Austria-Hungary’s war aims’, 310–13; Deak, Beyond nationalism, 72–4.
122 Rothenberg, ‘Habsburg army in the first world war’, in Kann et al. (eds.), The Habsburg empire, 75.
123 Herrmann, Arming of Europe, 218.
124 Rothenberg, Army of Francis Joseph, 125; Regele, Conrad, 60–4.
125 Leslie, ‘Österreich-Ungarn vor dem Kriegsaubruch’, 662–6; id. Wiener Beiträge, XÜ (1993), 378–81; Fritz Fellner, ‘Austria-Hungary’, in Wilson (ed.), Decisions for war, 11–12.
126 Herwig, First World War, 12; Rauchensteiner, Tod des Doppeladlers, 68.
127 Bridge, From Sadowa, 368–74, 448–9; Williamson, Austria-Hungary, 165–89; id., in Williamson and Pastor (eds.), War and society, v. 9–36; id., Journal of Interdisciplinary History, XVIII (1988), 806–8; A. J. May, Hapsburg monarchy, 22–50, 55–8.
128 Rauchensteiner, Tod des Doppeladlers, 70.
129 Quoted in Fay, Origins, ii. 212–13.
130 Delbrück, Der wirtschaftliche Mobilmachung, 96.
131 Diary entry for 27 July 1914, Riezler, Tagebücher, 192.
132 Moses, War & Society, V (1987), 31.
133 Pogge von Strandmann, ‘Germany and the coming of the war’, in Evans and Pogge von Strandmann (eds.), The Coming, 115; Johannes Hürter, ‘Die Staatssekretäre des Auswartigen Amtes im Ersten Weltkrieg’, in Michalka (ed.), Erste Weltkrieg, 223–4; Epkenhans, Wilhelminische Flottenrüstung, 404.
134 Röhl, 1914, 22.
135 Quoted in Turner, Origins, 105; see also Afflerbach, Falkenhayn, 149–53; for an opposing view, see Stevenson, Armaments and the coming of war, 298, 303, 407.
136 Pogge von Strandmann, in Evans and Pogge von Strandmann, The Coming, 116.
137 Trumpener, Central European History, IX (1976), 62–6; Groener, Lebenserinnerungen, 141.
138 Williamson, Journal of Interdisciplinary History, XVIII (1988), 809.
139 Leslie, ‘Österreich-Ungarn vor dem Kriegsausbruch’, 666; Stone, Journal of Contemporary History, I (1966), 164.
140 Fellner, ‘Austria-Hungary’, in Wilson (ed.), Decisions for war, 15.
141 Leslie, Wiener Beiträge, XX (1993), 341–7, 381.
142 Wank, Austrian History Yearbook, I (1965), 86; also 82–3.
143 L. Woodward, Great Britain and the war, p. xiii.
144 Michael Howard, ‘Europe on the eve of the first world war’, in Evans and Pogge von Strandmann (eds.), The coming, 1.
145 For what follows, see esp. Mark Cornwall, ‘Serbia’, in Wilson (ed.), Decisions for war. This revises the earlier literature which gives a more bellicose twist to Belgrade’s position.
146 Stevenson, Armaments and the coming of war, 276–7, 353–5; Lyon, Journal of Military History, LXI (1997), 481–502.
147 Petrovich, Modern Serbia, 615.
148 William C. Fuller, ‘Russian empire’, in E. May (ed.), Knowing one’s enemies, 109–10; also 122–3.
149 Lieven, Russia and the origins, 77–80.
150 Ibid. 66.
151 Siegelbaum, Politics of industrial mobilization, 17–18; Linke, Militärgeschichtliche Mitteilungen, 32 (1982), 15.
152 William C. Fuller, Civil-military conflict in Imperial Russia, 256–7.
153 Williamson, Journal of Interdisciplinary History, XVIII (1988), 811–12; Keiger, France and the origins, 150.
154 D. W. Spring, ‘Russia and the coming of the war’, in Evans and Pogge von Strandmann (eds.), The Coming, 57–86, provides a full and instructive account.
155 McDonald, United government, 204–6, 218; Leslie, Wiener Beiträge, XX (1993), 341–7, 381.
156 L. C. F. Turner, ‘Russian mobilisation in 1914’, in Kennedy (ed.), War plans, 252–68, takes a different view; Lieven, Russia and the origins, 148–50, has some effective criticisms of Turner. See also Danilov, Russie dans la guerre mondiale, 30–8.
157 Fuller, Strategy and power, 355; Suchomlinow, Erinnerungen, 343; Tunstall, Planning for war, 113.
158 Geiss, Journal of Contemporary History, I (1966), 82; see also Geiss, July 1914.
159 Regele, Conrad, 242–5, also 122.
160 Showalter, Tannenberg, 95; Stevenson, Armaments and the coming of war, 400.
161 Afflerbach, Falkenhayn, 153–9; see more generally Trachtenberg, History and strategy, 88–92.
162 Quoted in Barnett, Swordbearers, 18.
163 The discussion that follows draws on John Keiger, ‘France’, in Wilson (ed.), Decisions for war, esp. 121–30, and Hayne, French foreign office, esp. 269–301.
164 Krumeich, Armaments, 214–29; also C. M. Andrew, ‘France and the German menace’, in E. May (ed.), Knowing one’s enemies, 146–8.
165 Raithel, Das ‘Wunder’ der inneren Einheit, 192–9, 252–5.
166 On Britain in the July crisis, see Michael Brock, ‘Britain enters the war’, in Evans and Pogge von Strandmann (eds.), The coming, 145–
78; Hazlehurst, Politicians at war, 1–116; Wilson, Policy of the entente, esp. 135–47.
167 A. May, Hapsburg monarchy, 52.
168 Bridge, From Sadowa, 381.
169 Brock and Brock (eds.), Asquith, 124–5.
170 Cassar, Asquith, 13–15, 18–19.
171 Neilson, Britian and the last Tsar, 35.
172 Keith Wilson, ‘Britain’, in Wilson (ed.), Decisions for war, 176–8; David (ed.), Inside Asquith’s cabinet, 179.
173 Steiner, Britain and the origins, 210.
174 D. Jones, Military-naval encyclopaedia, i. 3.
175 Herwig, ‘Imperial Germany’, in E. May (ed.), Knowing one’s enemies, 93.
176 Williamson, Journal of Interdisciplinary History, XVIII (1988), 816.
1 Soames, Speaking for themselves, 96.
2 Rosenberger, Zeitungen als Kriegstreiber?, 33.
3 Rohkrämer, Militarismus der kleinen Leute, 89–92, moderates this view; for a comparison between 1870 and 1914, see Meinecke, Strassburg/Freiburg/Berlin, 138.
4 Eksteins, Rites of spring, 306.
5 Kruse, ‘Kriegsbegeisterung’, 85.
6 Meinecke, Strassburg/Freiburg/Berlin, 137.
7 Mommsen, Weber, 190–1.
8 Zweig, World of yesterday, 173–4.
9 Barthas, Carnets de guerre, 14.
10 Cooper, Behind the lines, 22; see also Plaut, ‘Psychologie des Kriegers’, 11–15.
11 Daniel, War from within, 23.
12 Panayi, Enemy in our midst, 275; see also D. Winter, Death’s men, 23–4.
13 Raithel, Das ‘Wunder’ der inneren Einheit, 444–5.
14 Gary Stark, ‘All quiet on the home front: popular entertainment, censorship and civilian morale in Germany, 1914–1918’, in Coetzee and Shevin-Coetzee (eds.), Authority, identity, 75.
15 Rauchensteiner, Tod des Doppeladlers, 189.
16 Geinitz, Kriegsfurcht und Kampfbereitschaft, 161–3; also 167–8.
17 Gerd Krumeich, ‘L’Entrée en guerre en Allemagne’, in Becker and Audoin-Rouzeau (eds.), Sociétés européennes, 69.
18 Verhey, ‘Spirit of 1914’, 175–81; Raithel, Das ‘Wunder’ der inneren Einheit, 447–54.
19 Ulrich und Ziemann, Frontalltag im ersten Weltkrieg, 29; Liang, Rise of modern police, 190.
20 Panayi, Enemy in our midst, 33–8, 153–4.
21 Weber, Action française, 89–90.
22 Panayi, Enemy in our midst, 72–3, 224–8, 283.
23 Ibid. 135–7; Hirschfeld und Gaspar, Sittengeschichte des Weltkrieges,!. 76–7.
24 Berliner Geschichtswerkstatt, August 1914, 248, 274.
25 Berliner Geschichtswerkstatt, August 1914, 275; Ullrich, Kriegsalltag, 16, 23.
26 Panayi, Enemy in our midst, 53–4.
27 Le Bon, Psychology of the Great War, esp. 31–46,169–73, 266–8; Pick, War machine, 96, 224.
28 Fischer and Dubois, Sexual life during the World War, 64; also Hirschfeld und Gaspar, Sittengeschichte des Weltkrieges, esp. x, 31–5,48–9,53–69. Fischer and Dubois seem to have used Hirschfeld and Gaspar, which is much fuller.
29 Latzko, Men in battle, 20–1, 36–7.
30 Henrick Stahr, ‘Liebesgaben für den Ernstfall. Das Rote Kreuz in Deutschland zu Beginn des Ersten Weltkriegs’, in Berliner Geschichtswerkstatt, August 1914, 83–9; Summers, Angels and citizens, 237, 247–8, 253–60, 272–3, 278.
31 Geinitz, Kriegsfurcht und Kampfbereitschaft, 157.
32 Freud, ‘Thoughts for the times’, 276.
33 Haupt, Socialism and the Great War, 132. For what follows, see Haupt; Joll, Second International ; Kirby, War, peace and revolution, 1–40.
34 Milner, Dilemmas of Internationalism, 134–8.
35 Miller, Burgfrieden und Klassenkampf, 34–5.
36 Miller, Burgfrieden und Klassenkampf, 44.
37 Joll, Second International, 168.
38 Milner, Dilemmas of Internationalism, esp. 48–59, 71–83,193–9.
39 McKean, St Petersburg, 126–9; Melancon, Socialist Revolutionaries, 67.
40 McKean, St Petersburg, 356–7.
41 Longley, English Historical Review, CII (1987), 599–621; McKean, St Petersburg, 358–61, also 350–4.
42 Melancon, Socialist Revolutionaries, 65–6, also 22–6.
43 Joll, Second International, 181; also, Rauchensteiner, Tod des Doppeladlers, 35,139.
44 Snell, American Historical Review, LIX (1953), 66–7, On German socialism generally in this period, see Nettl, Past and Present, 30 (1965); Schorske, German social democracy ; Ryder, German revolution, chs. 1 and 2; Calkins, Haase, chs. 3 and 4; Groh, Journal of Contemporary History, I (1966), 4, 151–77; Miller, Burgfrieden und Klassenkampf; Kruse, Krieg und nationale Integration.
45 Vogel, Nationenen im Gleichschritt, 223.
46 Gunther Mai, ‘“Verteidigungskrieg” und “Volksgemeinschaft”. Staatliche Selbstbehauptung, nationale Solidarität und social Befreiung in Deutschland in der Zeit des Ersten Weltkrieges (1900-1925)’, in Michalka (ed.), Erste Weltkrieg, 585–6.
47 Stargardt, German idea of militarism, 93, 128–37, 140,155; Verhey, ‘Spirit of 1914’, 27–30; Milner, Dilemmas of internationalism, 199.
48 Kruse, Krieg und nationale Integration, 30–41; recent historians have played up the scale of these demonstrations, in contrast to earlier interpretations. See also Raithel, Das ‘Wunder’ der inneren Einheit, 244–7; Stargardt, German idea of militarism, 142.
49 Quoted in Raithel, Das ‘Wunder’ der inneren Einheit, 186.
50 Stargardt, German idea of militarism, 138–9,147.
51 Miller, Burgfrieden und Klassenkampf, 54.
52 Peter Jahn, ‘“Zarendreck, Barabarendreck—peitscht sie.” Die russische Besetzung Ostpreussens 1914 in der deutschen Offentlichkeit’, in Berliner Geschichtswerkstatt, August 1914, 150.
53 Miller, Burgfrieden und Klassenkampf, 42–3, 46–8; Kruse, Krieg und nationale Integration, 49–52.
54 Verhey, ‘Spirit of 1914’, 238–40, 246–7;Mai, Ende des Kaiserreichs, 19; Kruse, Krieg und nationale Integration, 54–61.
55 Milner, Dilemmas of Internationalism, 146–7,176–80; see also 8–11, 60–3,116–19.
56 Porch, March to the Marne, 111.
57 Renouvin, La Crise européenne, 73.
58 Milner, Dilemmas of Internationalism, 179–80, 204–5.
59 On Jaurès specifically, see Kriegel, Le Pain et les roses, 81, and 107–24. On French socialism generally in this period, see Becker, 1914: comment les français sont entrés dans la guerre, pt. 1, ch. 3 and pt 2, ch. 3; Kriegel and Becker, 1914: la guerre et le mouvement ouvrier français.
60 Becker, 1914, 149–88; Pourcher, Les Jours de guerre, 21.
61 Kriegel and Becker, 1914, 99.
62 On carnet B, see Becker, 1914, 379–400; Kriegel, Le Pain et les roses, 96–104; Pourcher, Les Jours de guerre, 24–6; in English, Watt, Dare call it treason, 42–7; Liang, Rise of modern police, 205–6.
63 Becker, La France et la guerre, 11.
64 Duroselle, La Grande Guerre des français, 54–5.
65 On the meaning of union sacrée, see Becker in Revue historique CCLXIV (1980), 65–74; Vingtième siècle revue d’histoire, 5 (1985), 111–21; La France en guerre, 11–38.
66 On the fate of the radical socialists, see S. Bernstein in Fridenson, 1914–1918, 65–77.
67 Milner, Dilemmas of internationalism, 7, 76–8.
68 On Labour’s response to the war, see McKibbin, Evolution of the Labour party, ch. 5; Marquand, Ramsay MacDonald, ch. 9; also Stedman Jones, Journal of Social History, VII (1974), 460–508.
69 J.F. V. Keiger, ‘Britain’s “union sacrée” in 1914’, in Becker and Audoin-Rouzeau, Les Sociétés européennes et la guerre, 42, 44.
70 J.M. Winter, Socialism and the challenge of war, 155.
71 Quoted in Stephen van Evera, ‘The cult of the offensive, in Steven Miller’, Military strategy, 63.
72 The discussion which follows is heavily dependent on Crook, Darwinism, war and hist
ory.
73 Wallace, War and the image of Germany, 16–19.
74 Eksteins, Rites of spring, 31–2.