To Arms

by Hew Strachan

  78 G. Dyer, Journal of Contemporary History, VIII (1973), 125–33.

  79 D. Rustow, World Politics, X (1959), 518–19 ;Zürcher, Unionist factor, 50, 59, 83.

  80 Schulte, Vor dem Kriegsausbruch, 131–5; Guse, Kaukasusfront, 21, gives a different view from his compatriots.

  81 Morgenthau, Ambassador Morgenthau’s story, 31–2; Soames (ed.), Speaking for themselves, 31; generally, Haley, Middle Eastern Studies, XXX (1994), 1–51, 224–51, esp. 1–15.

  82 Miller, Straits, 178.

  83 Ahmad, ‘War and society under the Young Turks’, 128–32.

  84 Djemal, Memoirs, 67.

  85 Wallach, Anatomie einer Militärhilfe, 137; see also Haley, Middle Eastern Studies, XXX (1994), 30–4, 40–2.

  86 Bihl, Kaukasuspolitik, 223.

  87 Erendil, in Kiraly et al (eds.), East Central European society, 372; Sheffy, British military intelligence,35

  88 Mühlmann, Deutschland und der Türkei, 101–2;Macfie, End of the Ottoman empire, 124; Sheffy, British military intelligence, 35–6; Miller, Straits, 307–8, 321.

  89 Larcher, La Guerre turque, 66–7; Emin, Turkey in the “World War, 107–8; Aaronsohn, With the Turks, 16–23; Miller, Straits, 237. On its impact in Mesopotamia, see Moukbil, La Campagne de l’Irak, 11–15; and in Kurdistan, see Ahmad, Kurdistan, 133–6.

  90 On Turkey’s railways, see esp. Trumpener, Germany and the Ottoman Empire, ch. 9; Larcher, La Guerre Turque, 57–9; W. Stanley, Journal of Transport History, VIII (1966), 189–204;Mühlmann, Das deutsch-türkische Waffenbündnis, 31–4.

  91 Wallach, Anatomie einer Militärhilfe, 148–9.

  92 Bihl, Kaukasuspolitik, 193.

  93 de Nogales, Four years beneath the crescent, 164–7.

  94 Trumpener, German and the Ottoman Empire, ch. 9; Feldman, Deutsche Bank, 141–4.

  95 Larcher, La Guerre turque, 603.

  96 Bihl, Kaukasuspolitik, 204.

  97 Neulen, Feldgrau in Jerusalem, 43.

  98 Allen and Murat off, Caucasian battlefields, 550–2; Nekrasov, North of Gallipoli, 26, 36.

  99 Trumpener, Journal of Modern History, XXXII (1960), 145–9.

  100 Mühlmann, Das deutsche-türkische Waffenbündnis, 48–9.

  101 Sheffy, British military intelligence, 61.

  1 Raithel, Das ‘Wunder’ der inneren Einheit, 119–25,133.

  2 Herrmann, Arming of Europe, 183.

  3 Jerabek, Potiorek, 100.

  4 Schulte, Vor dem Kriegsausbruch, 116.

  5 Schöllgen, Escape into war?, 123.

  6 Herwig, International History Review, XIII (1991), 281.

  7 Mombauer, ‘Moltke’, 185.

  8 Jost Dülffer, ‘Kriegserwartung und Kriegsbild in Deutschland vor 1914’, in Michalka (ed.), Der Erste Weltkrieg, 784–7.

  9 Schulte, Vor dem Kriegsausbruch, 19, 40–6,123; von der Goltz, Denkwürdigkeiten, 318.

  10 Gottlieb, Studies, 23.

  11 Landau, Politics of pan-Islam, 97.

  12 Even Fischer concedes this point; see Germany’s aims, 120. Ibid. 120–53, and Zechlin, Aus Politik und Zeitgeschichte (1961), 269–88, 325–37, 341–67, are the best accounts of revolutionary strategy in 1914–15. Kimche, Second Arab awakening, is in English but overstated. McKale, War by revolution, makes good use of German materials, but focuses on the Arabs.

  13 Gehrke, Persien in der deutschen Orientpolitik, L 1.

  14 Ibid. 22; Bihl, Kaukasus-politik, 40–1.

  15 Friedman, Germany, Turkey, and Zionism, 200–1; Zechlin, Aus Politik und Zeitgeschichte (1961), 341–67.

  16 Gehrke, Persien in der deutschen Orientpolitik, i.6, 23, 326.

  17 Janssen, Der Kanzler und der General, 41–8; Fischer, War aims, 122–4;Mühlmann, Oberste Heeresleitung und Balkan, 52–64.

  18 Trumpener, Journal of Contemporary History,! (1966), 182–3.

  19 Halpern, Haus, 149–51,155–64.

  20 Ibid. 186–7; Kurat ‘How Turkey drifted into World War I’, in Bourne and Watt (eds.), Studies, 305–6;Mühlmann, Waffenbündnis, 109–10; Pomiankowski, Zusammenbruch, 81–2; Bihl, Jahrbucher für Geschichte Osteuropas, NS, XIV (1966), 362–6.

  21 Mühlmann, Oberste Heeresleitungund Balkan, 42–3.

  22 Bihl, Kaukasus-politik, 59, 219, 230–1; Conrad, Aus meiner Dienstzeit, iv. 389.

  23 McKale, War by revolution, 52–3.

  24 Mühlmann, Oberste Heeresleitung und Balkan, 48; see also L. L. Farrar, Short-war illusion, 27. The precise sequence intended is unclear because of the ambiguity in zunächst.

  25 Weber, Eagles on the crescent, 88–94; Trumpener, Germany and the Ottoman empire, 36–8.

  26 Bihl, Kaukasus-politik, 41–2.

  27 Liman, Five years in Turkey, 26–7; Wallach, Anatomie einer Militärhilfe, 191–2;Mühlmann, Waffenbündnis, 89; McKale, War by revolution, 55–6.

  28 Trumpener, ‘Suez, Baku, Gallipoli: the military dimensions of the German-Ottoman coalition 1914–18’, in Kiraly et al. (eds.) East Central European society, 390.

  29 Mühlmann, Deutschland und der Türkei 1913–1914, 101–2, gives the text.

  30 Landau, Politics of pan-Islam, 99–101; Bihl, Kaukasus-politik, 37.

  31 Larcher, La Guerre turque, 7–10; Bihl, Kaukasus-politik, 36–7.

  32 Haley, Middle Eastern Studies, XXX (1994), 4–5.

  33 Martin Kröger, ‘Revolution als Programm. Ziele und Realität deutscher Orientpolitik im Ersten Weltkrieg’, in Michalka (ed.), Der Erste Weltkrieg, 371.

  34 Lewis, ‘The Ottoman proclamation of Jihad in 1914’, 160,163.

  35 Ibid. 160.

  36 Jaschke, Welt des Islams, XXIII (1941), 12; the translation is from Swietochowski, Russian Azerbaijan, 76. See also Hagen, Die Türkei im Ersten Weltkrieg, 28.

  37 Osuntokun, Nigeria in the First World War, 149; Landau, Politics of pan-Islam, 141–2; Shepperson and Price, Independent African, 405–8.

  38 Landau, Politics of pan-Turkism, 49–51; Landau, Politics of pan-Islam, 92–4, 104, 108, 134–8.

  39 Simon, Libya between Ottomanism and Nationalism, 125–8.

  40 William L. Cleveland, ‘The role of Islam as political ideology in the First World War’, in Edward Ingram (ed.), National and international politics in the Middle East, 85–98.

  41 Meynier, L’Algérie révelée, 509.

  42 Müller, Islam, Gihad, 197, 239–43.

  43 Dahlhaus, Möglichkeiten und Grenzen, 117–37,151–69,186–200, 221–30.

  44 Müller, Islam, Gihad, 193–8, 204–7; Martin Kröger, ‘Revolution als Programm’, in Michalka (ed.), Der Erste Weltkrieg, 368–75.

  45 Stuermer, Two war years, 147.

  46 Hagen, Die Türkei im Ersten Weltkrieg, 41.

  47 For this and most of what follows, see Bihl, Kaukasus-Politik, 51,102–12; Jacobsen, Revue d’histoire Maghrebine, 59–60 (octobre 1990), 95–100.

  48 Aaronsohn, With the Turks, 27; also 36. See Meynier, L’Algérie révelée, 250–1.

  49 McKale, War by revolution, 62,111–12,159–60,165.

  50 Müller, Islam, Gihad, 177–85,198–201, 333–9, 353–7.

  51 Meynier, L’Algérie révelée, 514; for what follows, see 510–17.

  52 Müller, Islam, Gihad, 209–10, 284–95, 347–9

  53 Heine, Revue de l’Occident Musulman et de la Mediterranée, 33 (1982), 89–95; also Müller, Islam, gihad, 271–80.

  54 Bihl, Kaukasus-politik, 124; Pomiankowski, Zusammenbruch, 325–6.

  55 McKale, War by revolution, 201; Dahlhaus, Möglichkeiten und Grenzen, 204–13.

  56 Hagen, Die Türkei im Ersten Weltkrieg, 48.

  57 On the Caucasian demographic and economic background, see Bihl, Kaukasus-politik, 17–27; Geyer, Russian imperialism, 330–6.

  58 Swietochowski, Russian Azerbaijan, 65.

  59 Ibid. 73–4; Hovanissian, Armenia, 13–23.

  60 Howard, Partition of Turkey, 46, 51; Alan Bodger, ‘Russia and the end of the Ottoman Empire’, in Kent (ed.), Great powers, 79, 89–92.

  61 Guse, Kaukasusfront, 8.
>
  62 The fullest operational account of the Caucasian front is in Allen and Muratoff, Caucasian battlefields.

  63 Ibid. 240–1; Danilov, La Russie dans la guerre mondiale, 339–40, and Larcher, La Guerre turque, 375–7, have slightly different totals.

  64 Wm. C. Fuller, Jr., ‘The Russian Empire’, in E. R. May, Knowing one’s enemies, 120–3.

  65 Guse, Kaukasusfront, 7–8.

  66 Allen and Muratoff, Caucasian battlefields, 243.

  67 Guse, Kaukasusfront, 11–28; Larcher, La Guerre turque, 378–9.

  68 Nekrasov, North of Gallipoli, 27–39.

  69 Bihl, Kaukasus-politik, 60–1, 63–4, 74,234–5; Jaschke, Welt des Islams, XXIII (1941), 13–14; Zechlin, Aus Politik und Zeitgeschichte (1961), 354.

  70 Bihl, Kaukasus-politik, 65–6; also 57–8.

  71 Hovanissian, Armenia, 30–4, 37–8, 41–2.

  72 Suchomlinow, Erinnerungen, 284.

  73 Allen and Muratoff, Caucasian battlefields, 244–8; Guse, Kaukasusfront, 29–33.

  74 This is the theory of Nogales, Four years, 25; generally see Haley, Middle Eastern Studies, XXX (1994), 227–8.

  75 Schwarte, Weltkampf, iv. 422.

  76 Guse refers to Ismael Hakki; Allen and Muratoff to Hafiz.

  77 Inostransev, Revue militaire française, 165 (mars 1935), 334. Inostransev’s articles; Guse, Kaukasusfront; and Allen and Muratoff, Caucasian battlefields are the principal sources for Sarikamish.

  78 Bihl, Kaukasus-politik, 223–4; Wallach, Anatomie einer Militärhilfe, 175–7; Haley, Middle Eastern Studies, XXX (1994), 229.

  79 Guse, Kaukasusfront, 34–5, 38–9; Pomiankowski, Zusammenbruch, 103–4. Guse himself is always complimentary about Bronsart: Kaukasusfront, 36, 54.

  80 Haley, Middle Eastern Studies, XXX (1994), 227.

  81 Inostransev, Revue militaire française, 164 (février 1935), 203–5, emphasizes the logic of Bergmann’s thinking and actions, and throughout plays little regard to Yudenich. Allen and Muratoff, Caucasian battlefields, see Yudenich as the hero of Sarikamish, and indeed of the Caucasus war as a whole.

  82 Inostransev, Revue militaire française, 164 (février 1935), 207–8, seems to imagine that the whole Russian manoeuvre was conceived on 27 December. If that were the case, and following Allen and Muratoff, Caucasian battlefields, 268–9, 272–4, Yudenich would have to have been its author. But Inostransev, Revue militaire française, 165 (mars 1935), 329–32, then gives Bergmann the credit for Baratov’s manoeuvre and for seeing the opportunity for envelopment on 2/3 January 1915. Allen and Muratoff, Caucasian battlefields, 276–80, see Bergmann as still devoid of insight and delaying Baratov’s manoeuvre till 6 January.

  83 Bihl, Kaukasus-politik, 222–3; Guse, Kaukasusfront, 49–50; Pomiankowski, Zusammenbruch, 1034; Allen and Muratoff, Caucasian battlefields, 283–4; Larcher, La Guerre turque, 389; Falls, First World War, 96.

  84 Hovanissian, Armenia, 47–8; Jones, Military-naval encyclopedia, iv. 218–20.

  85 Quoted by Herrmann, English Historical Review, CIV (1989), 345.

  86 On Egyptian nationalism, see Gershoni and Jankowski, Egypt, Islam, and the Arabs, 4–24; Goldschmidt ‘The Egyptian Nationalist Party’; M. W. Daly, ‘Egypt’ in A. D. Roberts (ed.), Cambridge History of Africa, vii. 745; Landau, Politics of pan-Islam, 122–33.

  87 Elgood, Egypt and the army, 19.

  88 Weber, Eagles on the crescent, 88–91. Macmunn and Falls, Military operations: Egypt and Palestine, i. 35, mention a possible German coup; Gershoni and Jankowski, Egypt, Islam and the Arabs, 25, say a conspiracy was rumoured but not confirmed.

  89 Kress von Kressenstein, Mit den Türken, 75–6.

  90 Bihl, Kaukasus-politik, 43; Newell, ‘British military policy in Egypt’, 43–5.

  91 Gershoni and Jankowski, Egypt, Islam, and the Arabs, 15–17.

  92 Bihl, Kaukasus-politik, 118–19, 214–15.

  93 Fewster, Bean, 41.

  94 This figure is derived from Kress van Kressenstein, Mit den Türken, 85–6; the other account from the Turkish side, Djemal, Memoirs, 150–1, gives 25,000. British accounts of the campaign are Macmunn and Falls, Military operations: Egypt and Palestine,!. 19–52; Elgood, Egypt and the army, 108–37; Newell, ‘British military policy in Egypt and Palestine’, 64–78.

  95 Sheffy, British military intelligence, 47–8

  96 Mühlmann, Waffenbündnis, 88–91.

  97 McKale, European History Quarterly, XXVII (1997), 206.

  98 J. Wilson, Lawrence of Arabia, 173.

  99 Newell, ‘British military policy in Egypt and Palestine’, 46–59; J. Wilson, Lawrence of Arabia, 134–8,167–72.

  100 McKale, War by revolution, 53, 576, 71.

  101 Sheffy, British military intelligence, 53–4.

  102 Neulen, Feldgrau in Jerusalem, 64–5.

  103 Larcher, La Guerre turque, 253–4.

  104 R. Simon, Libya between Ottomanism and nationalism, 87–105,155–6,305. Simon is fundamental on Libya in the war, and largely replaces the older work of E. E. Evans-Pritchard, The Sanusi of Cyrenaica. O. Meynier, ‘La Guerre sainte des Senoussya en Afrique (1914–1918)’, Revue militaire française, 131, 138, 139, 140, 148, 149, 152, 153, (1932–4), has a wider geographical remit than Simon.

  105 Trumpener, Germany and the Ottoman empire, 115–17,119–21.

  106 Müller, Islam, Gihad, 187–9, 268, 377–80.

  107 McKale, War by revolution, 146–51.

  108 Stuermer, Two war years, 146; also Martin Kröger, ‘Revolution als Programm’, in Michalka (ed.), Der Erste Weltkrieg, 378; Hagen, Türkei im Ersten Weltkrieg, 37; McKale, War by revolution, 63–5,104–5, 156–8.

  109 Kakwenzaire, Transafrican Journal of History, XIV (1985), 36–45; Marcus, International Journal of African Historical Studies, XVI (1983), 263–79; McKale, War by revolution, 168–9,193–6.

  110 Evans-Pritchard, Sanusi, 128, says Ali Darfur was not sympathetic to the Senussi. Macmunn and Falls, Egypt and Palestine,!. 135,147–51, assume wider co-ordination. Daly, Empire on the Nile, 171–87, is exhaustive.

  111 Macmunn and Falls, Egypt and Palestine,!. 101–47.

  112 Ibid. 147–53; O. Meynier, Revue militaire française, 153 (mars 1934), 418–26; Osuntokun, Nigeria in the First World War, 153–4; Wingate, Wingate of the Sudan, 183–5.

  113 Daly, Empire on the Nile, 152–91, is the main source on these points. See also G. N. Sanderson, ‘The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan’, in Roberts (ed.), Cambridge History of Africa, vol. VII; ‘Abd al Rahim, Imperialism and nationalism in the Sudan’, 96–9; Warburg, The Sudan under Wingate, 106–7, 152–4.

  114 Müller, Islam, Gihad, 327–9, 373, 385; Neulen, Feldgrau in Jerusalem, 102.

  115 Simon, Libya between Ottomanism, 233; see more generally 131–2, 169–83, 219–39, for what follows, and also G. Meynier, L’Algérie révelée, 489–96;Müller, Islam, Gihad, 387–9, 415–16; Neulen, Feldgrau in Jerusalem, 103–5.

  116 Neulen, Feldgrau in Jerusalem, 105; McKale, War by revolution, 190–1.

  117 On German agents, see Meynier, Revue militaire française, 14, (mars 1933), 396–8, and as a corrective, G. Meynier, L’Algérie révelée, 249–52.

  118 Landau, Politics of pan-Islam, 139.

  119 Akhbar, 14 Apr. 1912, quoted in G. Meynier, L’Algérie révelée, 248.

  120 Müller, Islam, Gihad, 93–4, 241–2, 299–308.

  121 ibid. 394–9.

  122 Bihl, Kaukasus-politik, 117.

  123 G. Meynier, L’Algérie révelée, 510; Burke, Francia, III (1975), 459.

  124 Burke, Francia, III (1975), 458–60, 463.

  125 Ageron, Les Algériens musulmans, 1175. Algeria in the First World War is the subject of two fine and thorough studies: Ageron, and G. Meynier, L’Algérie révelée. Meynier revises (and amplifies) Ageron’s picture in many ways, particularly in seeing the First World War as giving rise to a sense of Algerian nationalism and the beginnings of the move for independence. Ageron, by contrast, emphasizes the stability of Algeria during the war itself
.

  126 Burke, Francia, III (1975), 449–50.