Abernathy, David, 450, 453, 591n71
Académie royal des sciences (Paris), 475
Acemoglu, Daron, 496, 525, 602n45
Achaemenid empire: Athenian empire fighting against, 55, 553n6; in counterfactual to Roman empire, 112, 112–13, 119, 121; duration and scope of, 221, 300, 522; horsemanship of, 299; imperial consolidation under, 38; logistical challenges of, 139; Middle Eastern political-military network, 90; military of, 299–300, 521; population of, 35, 39, 140, 219; reach of, 552n5
Actium, battle of (31 BCE), 79
Aetolian league, 95
Afghanistan, 285, 298, 435
Afzelius, Adam, 550n19
Aghlabids, 151, 152
Akkadian empire, 112, 112, 543n7
Alexander the Great (Macedonian king), 11, 91, 95, 114–17, 115, 119, 121, 221, 553n8, 553n12
Alfred (English king), 239
Allen, Robert, 491–95, 499, 501, 597n59, 597n71
Ambrose, 315, 574n10
Ameling, Walter, 439n4, 439n6
Americas. See maritime exploration and expansion; New World; United States
Anastasius I (Roman emperor), 315
Anatolia, 82, 90, 95, 100, 112, 135, 136, 179, 204, 206, 221, 317
Angkorian empire, 47, 272
Antigonus I (Macedonian king), 117, 553n14
Antiochos IV (Seleucid king), 601n36
Antony, 83
Appian, 85
Aquitaine, 148–49, 153, 156, 160
Arab conquests: Christian Spain repelling, 176, 193; in eighth century, 12, 139–52; fragmentation of, 145–47, 246; inability to maintain a large-scale empire in Europe, 147–48, 152, 215, 512; Islamic religious practices and, 317; in Levant, 301; military practices and, 145–46, 256; Samarra crisis (860s) and, 145; in sixth century, 136, 137, 138; tax practices and, 143, 144, 146–47, 255–56. See also Abbasid caliphate; Iberian peninsula; Umayyad caliphate
Arabic language and writing, 311, 329
Aramaic language, 311
Archimedes, 524
aristocracy. See nobility
Aristophanes, 553n6
Arrighi, Giovanni, 399, 583n141
Arsaces I (Parthian king), 299
Asia: ecology of, 277; economic development in, 2, 3–4; New World bullion transferred to, 421, 425. See also specific regions and countries
assemblies and decision-making bodies, 355–57
Assyria, 112, 221, 299, 543n7
Athenian empire, 55, 113–14, 115, 553n6. See also Greek city-states
Atlas of World Population History (McEvedy and Jones, eds.), 533–34
Augustus (Roman emperor), 83–84, 101, 457
Avars, 135, 137, 139, 154, 182, 246, 293
Ayyubids, 176
Aztec empire, 46, 55, 193, 464, 543n7
Bacon, Francis, 478
Baechler, Jean, 396, 515
Baghdad, 191, 207, 256
Bang, Peter F., 539n21
Bank of England, 382
Barfield, Thomas, 277, 279, 287, 295, 568n40
Batu, 174–81, t186, 188
Bayle, Pierre, 474
Bayly, Chris A., 478–79, 496, 539n21
Beard, Mary, 542n4
Beckwith, Christopher, 278, 568n40, 568n42
Béla IV (Hungarian king), 176–78, 180
Belich, James, 470
Bennett, James, 552n36
Berbers, 136, 142, 144, 148–49, 151–54, 213, 302
Billows, Richard, 553n14
Black Death, 4, 142, 190, 371, 417, 491, 498, 499, 597n60, 598n79
Bodde, Derk, 405, 594n23, 595n27
Bohemia, 83, 176, 185, 268, 347, 376, 474
Bosworth, A. B., 553n9
Brahe, Tycho, 483
Brandt, Loren, 394
Braudel, Fernand, 32
Britain. See England/Britain
Bryant, Joseph, 392, 589n18
Buddhism, 224, 317–20, 322, 329
Bulgars, 136, 137, 152, 155, 175, 290
Burgundians, 132, 134, 153, 165, 166, 193
Burma, 182, 303, 306, 457
Byzantine empire (Byzantium), 136, 143, 168, 187, 316, 508–9, 511, 572n80. See also Constantinople; East Roman restoration (sixth century)
California school of scholarship, 575n1
Calvin, Jean, 197, 200, 474
Campanella, Tommaso, 474
capitalism, 391–92, 396, 411, 414, 473, 589n20, 596n58
Carolingian empire, 153–64, 155, 157; compared to Roman empire, 162–63, 213, 228; demise of, 240; elites as warriors in, 159–60, 162; expansion of, 160, 163; factional conflict in, 160–61; income from land grants in, 159; post-Charlemagne, 158, 161; taxes in, 159
Carthage: in counterfactual to Roman empire, 113, 116–19, 521, 524; maritime exploration by, 430; population of, 549n6; as rival to Rome, 62, 77–78, 80, 91–100, 103, 109, 222, 439n4, 543n7, 546nn57–59, 549n4, 549nn6–9; troop numbers for, 551n30. See also First Punic War; Second Punic War
Casale, Giancarlo, 447–48
Catholic Church: counterfactual scenario for European unity and, 512–13, 601n33; creation of College of Cardinals, 171, 346; excommunication powers, 315–16, 347, 573n10; French education system and, 488; Great Schism (thirteenth century), 348; harmonization of canon law, 346, 514; Latin as lingua franca of, 517–18; Nicaean creed and, 519; papacy and, 171, 224, 346–48, 512; power of, 340, 345–48, 513; Reformation and, 370, 473–74; as victim of its own success, 348. See also Christianity; German empire; Holy Roman Empire
cavalry warfare: Abbasids, 256; Carolingian Empire, 162; in China, 242–45, 248, 250, 252, 285, 570n56; Hellenistic kingdoms, 95; Huns, 295; in India, 296–300; Magyars, 293; Mongols, 175, 177, 181–82, 189; in Muscovy, 292; Parthians, 100; in Roman Empire, 77; steppe effect and, 275, 279–80
Celtic language, 311, 312
Celtic society, 522–23, 526
Central America, 10, 46, 466. See also New World
Chagatai khanate, 175, 183, 185
Charlemagne (Frankish king), 35, 36, 154–56, 160–63, 171, 231, 240, 244, 267
Charles the Bald (Frankish king), 161
Charles the Fat (Frankish king), 157
Charles Martel, 154, 160
Charles V (Habsburg ruler and Holy Roman emperor), 193–98; abdication by, 198; army size and, 199; compared to Charlemagne, 199–200; counterfactual scenario for, 200–201, 203; credit to finance wars of, 199; fighting against France, 195, 196, 198; fiscal constraints in waging war and, 199–200; New World conquests by, 193, 196–97; Protestant Reformation and, 197–98
Chen Qiang, 409
China: as agrarian empire, 441–48; agrarian paternalism in, 406–7, 442; ancestor worship in, 321; bureaucracy in, 226–27, 248, 393; capture of population (not territory) as goal of, 242; censorship in, 404; Central Plain in, 264–65; civil service system in, 225, 244, 394; clans in, 408, 410–11, 542n4; commerce and trade in, 397, 442–46, 588n226; compared to Europe (post-1500), 392–96, 406, 411–13; compared to post-Roman Europe, 17, 23, 228, 243, 254–58, 320–28, 329–32, 331, 343–44, 562n30; compared to Roman empire, 72, 221–27, 294, 320, 505, 507; corruption in, 408–9, 506; cotton imports from India, 426; defined, 529; developmental outcomes of empire structure in, 342, 392–96, 400–407, 506, 583n138; ecology in, conducive to empire building, 252, 281–90; energy constraints on economic development in, 494; examination system in, 322, 394, 480, 563n46, 594n24; fiscal administration in, 251, 257, 395, 407–8, 585n190; fragmentation periods, relationship to innovation in, 396–400; fubing system in, 248, 251, 255; geography of, 261–64, 266–67, 282; Great Wall and other protective walls in, 285, 289, 437; hegemony and conservatism in, 479–85; Hundred Schools of Thought, 396; ideologies of empire in, 320–28, 329, 331; institutions, logic of, 392–96; land distribution in, 247, 248, 405; language and writing in, 308–9, 310, 312–13, 573n4, 594n23; Legalism in, 320–21, 322, 393; maritime commerce restrictions in, 402–3; migrants from, lack of homeland interest in protecting, 443–45; military mobilization and warfare in, 242–44, 246–51, 257, 3
97–99; modern China’s leadership from south, 569n49; Mongols in, 4, 175, 182–83, 189–90, 230, 285, 286, 398–99, 440, 558n20; monopolistic policymaking in, 400–407; mountains and rivers in, 261–64, 500; north/northwest as origin of unification events, 223, 224, 227, 244–53, 281–82, 289, 566n13; north-south split in, 230–31; overseas exploration not of interest to, 433, 441–46, 591n77; patronage in, 227, 395–96, 476, 481; patterns of empire in, 40–41, 41–42, 43–44, 44, 228, 279; Period of Disunion (fourth through sixth centuries CE), 43, 246–52, 254, 280, 318, 322, 397, 399; population of, 219, 249, 251, 288, 564n50, 587n224; post-Han China compared to post-Roman Europe, 13, 223, 251–52; post-nineteenth-century economic development in, 2; property rights in, 395; Qin-Han China compared to Roman Europe, 72, 221–27; rebellions occurring near end of individual dynasties in, 286–87, 406, 412, 570n61, 586n205; religion and belief systems in, 317–22, 328; serial empire reconstructions in, 9, 12, 224, 229, 246–53, 257, 395, 411; Sixteen Kingdoms period (304 to 439 CE), 227, 242, 284; social development (500 BCE–1500 CE) in, 5; stagnation in thinking and lack of alternative discourse in, 479–85; state formation in, compared to Europe, 228, 251–52, 394, 542n18; steppe effect and, 283–84, 286–90, 444, 452, 569n44, 570n62; tax practices in, 225, 245, 246–47, 252, 253, 257, 394–95, 397, 407–10; Three Kingdoms (mid-third century), 243; urbanization in, 394, 397–98, 442; Warring States period (pre-Qin), 72, 81, 222, 224, 230, 248, 283, 308, 320, 323–24, 327, 339, 393, 396, 406, 480, 481, 544n22, 551n29, 560n4, 575n33; waterworks and flood control in, 264, 499–500, 566n10; White Lotus rebellion (1790s), 412. See also Confucianism; East Asia; specific dynasties and empires
Christianity: ascendance in Europe, 224, 314–17, 511, 518–19, 527; colonization and New World interests of, 450; comparison to Islamic and Chinese belief systems, 329; as divisive factor in Europe, 511–12; Eastern Church’s division, 316, 574n13; failure of empire-building and, 512–14; modernity and, 511, 516; state formation and, 317; as supraregional organization, 345–48. See also Catholic Church; Protestantism
church. See Catholic Church; Christian Church; religion and beliefs; specific religions
Cicero, 232
cities. See urban development
clans, 408, 410–11, 542n4
Clark, Gregory, 497
Claudius (Roman emperor), 81, 86, 239
Clement VII (pope), 197
coal, 6, 386–87, 425, 492, 494, 500, 537n7, 588n12, 597nn67–68
colonial empires: conflict over, 449; as extensions of competing European polities, 538n17; slavery and, 388, 423–24. See also maritime exploration and expansion; New World; specific countries controlling colonial empires
Columbus, Christopher, 193, 431, 439, 450, 462–64
commercial transactions and credit: Bourgeois Revaluation, 489–90; Charles V using credit to finance wars, 199; in China, 398–99, 588n226; in Europe and England (post-1500), 356–57, 376, 381–82, 580n77, 581n103; low interest rates, effect of, 497; in Roman empire, 504; unifying set of customs and rule for, 516. See also mercantilism
common law tradition, 378, 497, 498
communalism, 14, 352–53, 376, 416, 474
comparative scholarship, 21–22, 26, 502; analytical comparison between equivalent units, 23; premodern rule and, 42–48; variable-oriented parallel demonstration of theory, 23
competition: (Second) Great Divergence and, 18; significance of, 15; stifled by empire, 17, 339–41, 343, 396
Confucianism, 320–23, 393, 394, 395, 406, 442, 480, 482, 490, 583n143, 594n23
Congjian Yan, Shuyu Zhouzilu, 437–38
Conrad I (German ruler), 164
Conrad II (German ruler), 166, 177
Constantine I (Roman emperor), 194, 314, 508, 519, 601n33
Constantinople, 135–36, 139, 140, 142–44, 148, 152, 204, 223; patriarch of, 316
constitutionalism, 361, 375, 380
Coptic language, 311
corruption, 129, 342, 381, 403, 407–9, 506, 508
Cosandey, David, 260
cotton industry and trade, 424–27, 589n20
Council of Chalcedon (451), 133, 346
Council of Clermont (1095), 347
Council of Nicaea (325), 346
councils and synods, 348–51
counterfactual, significance of use of, 23–26, 215, 540n39
counterfactual scenario for France and England (seventeenth century), 208–10
counterfactual scenario for Holy Roman Empire and Habsburgs, 200–201, 215, 512–13, 559n55
counterfactual scenario for Mongol empire, 185–92, 215
counterfactual scenario for Napoleon, 211–12, 215
counterfactual scenario for Ottoman empire, 206–8
counterfactual scenario for overseas exploration, 454–71; changing orientation to New World (East is West), 459–67, 460–61, 463; Chinese economic development, 468–71; shortcuts to access goods, 455–59
counterfactual scenario for Roman empire, 11, 110–23, 521–26, 525, 602n45; eastern hostilities as source of, 111–20; Etruscization of Rome and, 552n2; Hannibal and Carthage as source of, 118–19, 521, 524, 553n16; Italian domestic developments as source of, 110–11, 120–22, 521; Macedonian intervention in Italy as source of, 114–17, 521, 553n17; Persian invasion of southern Italy as source of, 522, 552n5; Social War (91–89 BCE) as source of, 120; warfare between rival factions of Roman aristocracy as source of, 121, 554nn21–22
counterfactual scenario for sixteenth-century European powers, 200–204
counterfactual scenario for Song empire, 583n157
Counter-Reformation, 484
Crassus, 83
credit. See commercial transactions and credit
Crone, Patricia, 416, 587n219, 598n85
Crusades, 176, 347
culture and cultural unity, 307–34, 331; benefit of simultaneous fragmentation and cultural unity, 514–16; comparisons between Chinese and European systems, 328–30; counterfactual to Roman empire, effect on cultural unity, 522; First Great Divergence and, 307; hegemony and conservatism in China, India, and Middle East, 341, 479–85; Industrial Enlightenment and, 485–88; knowledge and scientific inquiry, 472–73; language and writing, 308–13, 476; polycentrism and Enlightenment, 473–79; (Second) Great Divergence and Industrial Revolution(s) and, 472–73; values of Enlightenment, 488–91. See also literacy rate; religion and beliefs
Cumans, 175, 177, 291
Cyrus II (Achaemenid king), 299
da Gama, Vasco, 431, 439
Daly, Jonathan, 538n13
Daoism, 319, 321
Dareios I (Achaemenid king), 299, 432
Dead Sea Scrolls, 524
De Angelis, Franco, 549n5
decentralization, 145–46, 224, 228, 230, 232, 235, 240, 268, 561n24, 561n30
De Crespigny, Rafe, 566n13, 575n44
Demandt, Alexander, 128, 552n2, 552n5, 553n11, 553n16, 554n6
democracy, 8, 538n11, 587n220
Deng, Kent Gang, 279, 406, 586n205
Denmark. See Scandinavian polities
Descartes, René, 474, 478
Diamond, Jared, 260, 263
di Cosmo, Nicola, 287–88, 568n40
Diet of Worms (1521), 197
Dincecco, Mark, 358
Diodorus, 549n5
diversity, role of, 391, 414, 496
Dong Zhonshu, 480
Doyle, Michael, 102, 542n2, 550n10, 551n26
Duchesne, Ricardo, 496
Durand-Guédy, David, 587n219
Dutch United Provinces, 356
Dutschke, Rudi, 576n7
East Asia: coastline compared to Europe, 261; defined, 33; divergence from European state formation, 220, 560n13; ecology of, 272, 281–90; geography of, 260–67, 262; imperial state formation in, 45, 45–47; mountains and rivers in, 261–64, 262; parallel of state formation to Roman empire, 220, 221–24; parallels of state formation in Europe with, 220, 221–24; patterns of empire, 10, 12, 40–42, 41–42, 43, 230; plain regions and natural core in, 264–66; polycentris
m not applicable to, 230, 418–19, 560n16; population of, 34, 35; size of, 33, 34. See also China
Eastern Europe: failure to export to richer northwest, 427; Mongol incursion into, 174–75, 178; steppe effect and, 290–93; in tenth century, 268. See also specific countries
East Francia, 157
East India Company, 386, 451
East Roman restoration (sixth century), 12, 132, 132–38, 134, 212–14
ecology: East Asia, 281–90; Europe, 290–94; imperial state formation and, 47, 274, 276–80, 331, 332, 501; Iran, 298–301; Levant and North Africa, 301–2; Mongol invasion and, 181–82, 183, 192, 245, 278, 556n1, 557–58n18, 557n9; Roman empire’s demise and, 137; South Asia, 295–98; Southeast Asia, 303–4; volcanic activity resulting in famine (ninth century), 162. See also steppe effect
economic development: East vs. West, 2, 2–5, 4, 7, 411–13, 537n3; gross domestic product (GDP) correlated with happiness and life evaluation, 8; modestly sized polities’ ability to flourish compared to quasi-imperial kingdoms, 415, 431, 494, 578n59; in post-1500 Europe, 370–75; post-nineteenth-century, 1, 6; in Roman empire, 505–6. See also Industrial Revolution(s); transformative developmental outcomes; specific countries and empires
Egypt: Council of Chalcedon (451) and, 133; in counterfactual to Roman empire, 112; domestic turmoil in, 550n14; empire of eighth and seventh centuries BCE, 221, 302; Fatimid capture of (969), 151, 302; fiscal and tax practices in, 255, 565n71; horses and chariot warfare in, 301–2; Hyksos occupation of, 301; international trade with, 427, 457; language and writing in, 311; Middle Eastern political-military network (c. 1500–500 BCE), 90; Persia’s persistent problems with (525 to 332 BCE), 552n5; Roman conquest of, 83, 456, 457; Sasanians annexing, 135; Seleucids and, 521, 601n36. See also Ptolemies
Eire, Carlos, 200–201, 203, 601n33
Elvin, Mark, 403
empire: adaptiveness of, 15; agrarian empires, 15, 397, 441–48; beneficial effect on social development, 4; capstone governments, 339, 342, 362, 407, 413, 414, 576n4; causes of demise of, 240–41; city-state–based empires, 543n7; defined, 529; factors leading to demise of, 129; failure of Europe to re-create after fall of Roman empire, 9, 10, 11, 16, 127–28, 131, 166, 168, 172–73, 214, 333, 496, 503; ideology of imperial unity, 320–28, 329, 331; imperiogenesis, 17, 461, 484, 501, 513–14; institutions, importance of, 326–27; measuring imperial dominance, 31–34; monopolistic, 15–17, 32, 38, 47, 204, 339, 341, 343; outside of Europe, durability of empire-bearing structures, 131; patterns of, 35–37, 35–48; perpetuation as negative factor for further development, 17, 341–42, 479–85; population as most meaningful measure of, 32, 213; population size of largest empires (700 BCE to 2000 CE), 15, 16; “shadow empire” model, 277–78, 568n40. See also specific empires and countries
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