energy capture and consumption, 6, 537nn7–8. See also coal
England/Britain: alliance with Spain against France, 201; Anglo-Saxon period, 239, 312, 349, 363; bourgeoisie’s freedom and dignity in, 489–90; church’s role in, 346, 478; Civil War in, 376, 379, 578n59; cohesion and collective action in, 379, 581n110; colonization and New World trade of, 421–23, 424–27, 449; common law tradition in, 378; Commons, 350; corruption and rent-seeking in, 381; counterfactual scenario for economic rise of, 498–99; counterfactual scenario for seventeenth century in, 208–10; cultural change in, 390; domestic conflict in, 376; economic conditions (post-1500) in, 371; Enlightenment in, labeled as Industrial Enlightenment, 485; escape from Rome in, 378; fiscal-naval-mercantilist state and economic development in, 385–90; fragmentation in, 363–64, 390; ghost acreages of, 424–25, 426–27, 589n19; Glorious Revolution (1688), 379, 474; governance and politics in, 349, 350, 364–65, 377–82; immigrants coming to, 378, 486; industrialization and modernity in, 341, 359, 377–82, 389–92, 415, 428, 485, 491–95; innovation in, 388–90, 485–88, 497, 581n99; iron industry and metal products in, 388, 423, 424, 494; literacy rates and public education in, 373, 375, 477, 485–86, 492, 596n42; Luddite riots, 487; Magna Carta, 350; naval supremacy of, 385–90; Navigation Acts, 385; Netherlands and, 377; in ninth century, 155, 228; nobility rising in importance in, 239; North Sea economy of, 370–77; parliament in, 350, 376, 379–81; path to Industrial Revolution, 377–82, 491–95; post-nineteenth-century economic development in, 1, 2; productivity in, 378, 422; protectionism and, 380–81, 384–87; Reformed Church in, 478; religious tolerance in, 484; Roman empire’s end in, 363; sixteenth- and seventeenth-century rise of, 201, 203, 208, 381–82; slave trade and, 424, 425, 426, 589n17; standing army in, 239; taxes and military commitments in, 369, 379; in tenth century, 241; textile industry and trade in, 386, 415, 423–25, 491–93, 581n115, 588n10, 597n60; trade as economic engine in, 390, 493–94; urbanization in, 371, 373–74, 581n99, 597n64; war and, 366, 382–84; waterways and water use, importance of, 499–500; Whigs in, 380
English language and writing, 312
Enlightenment: hegemony and conservatism vs., 479–85, 594n23; Industrial Enlightenment, 485–88; polycentrism and, 473–79, 497; values of, 488–91
Ennius, 546n57
environmental effects. See ecology
Epirus, 91, 116, 117, 551n30
estates and grand councils, 349–51, 355, 496
Etruscans, 52, 54–58, 77, 115, 116, 522, 543n8, 545n35
Eugippius, 254
Europe: Christianity’s ascendance in, 314–17; coastline of, 260–61; corporate organization in, 410; defined, 33, 529–30; demography as factor in developmental transformation of, 497–99; ecology, 290–94; economic conditions (post-1500) in, 371, 372; ethnic loyalty in, 330; expansionism of, 411–13; geography of, 264–66, 270; globalization and, 420–25; imperial state formation in, 9–10, 44–45, 45, 48, 542n18; marriage pattern in, 498–99, 598n81; mountains and rivers in, 261–64, 262; parliamentarianism in, 14, 350–51, 376; patterns of empire in, 12, 35–38; plain regions and natural core not part of geography of, 264–66; population of, 34–38, 35–38; post-Napoleonic (1812), 211; post-nineteenth-century economic development in, 1, 2; precondition of disappearance of empire for later exceptionalism, 14; recurrent empires, negative possible effects of, 9–11, 14; sixteenth-century rise of, 200–201; size of, 33, 34; social development (5000 BCE–2000 CE), 5; social development (500 BCE–1500 CE), 5; social development (1500–1900 CE), 7; states constituting currently, 229; steppe effect and, 290–94; taxes and credit in, 368–70, 376; unity in diversity of, 514–16; urbanization in, 373–74; war in, 367–68. See also Black Death; counterfactuals; First Great Divergence (mid-first-millennium Europe); fragmentation of power; Industrial Revolution(s); maritime exploration and expansion; polycentrism; post-Roman Europe; Roman empire; (Second) Great Divergence; transformative developmental outcomes; specific countries and kingdoms
Fatimids, 145, 151, 302
feudalism, 14, 181, 243, 327, 340, 346, 351, 361, 416, 496, 514, 555n41
First Great Divergence (mid-first-millennium Europe), 219–21, 227–32; assignment of term, 231, 560n17; Chinese imperial tradition used as counterpoint to medieval and European state formation, 220; comparative scholarship and, 22, 23; culture and religion in, 307, 317; defined, 13, 530; explanation of factors, 330–34, 331; geography and, 259–70, 331, 332; Moore’s proposal of different First Great Divergence, 231–32, 561n17; revenue collection as key to power in, 232–34; serial empire reconstruction of China compared to polycentrism of Europe, 9, 12, 224, 229, 246–53, 257, 395, 411
First Industrial Revolution. See Industrial Revolution(s)
First Lateran Council (1123), 346
First Punic War, 96, 99, 109, 118, 120, 549n7, 549n9, 550n13
fiscal extraction, 63, 67, 158, 187, 232–33, 255–58, 330–34, 331, 341. See also military mobilization
Flanders, 181, 203, 265, 350, 352, 377
Fletcher, Joseph, 569n45
flood control, 264, 499–500, 566n10
Fourth Lateran Council (1215), 346
Fowden, Garth, 21
fragmentation of power: in Arab empire (late tenth century), 145; Bourgeois Revaluation and, 489; in Carolingian period, 161–62, 240, 555n39; in China, 396–400; development and, 337, 343, 359–60, 495–96; in East Roman restoration (sixth century), 138; Enlightenment and, 474–75, 497; exceptions proving the rule, 396–400, 538n14; fifteen centuries of, 212–15; in first-millennium-BCE Europe and East Asia, 221; in Habsburg domains, 198; in High and Late Middle Ages Europe, 228; modernity resulting from, 9, 359–60; Mongol engagement with fragmented opposition in Latin Europe, 179, 187; as overdetermined outcome for Europe, 220–21, 240, 501; overseas exploration and, 449–53, 471; resilience of state system and, 501, 502; significance of, 15, 27, 359–60; in Southeast Asia, 303; trade and, 360. See also polycentrism
France: in alliance with Ottoman empire, 195, 196, 206; aristocracy in, 241, 365; church’s role in, 346, 347; class differences inhibiting intellectual innovations in, 487; commune movement in, 352; compared to Roman empire, 213; counterfactual scenario for seventeenth century in, 208–10, 513; French Revolution, 376; German Roman Empire and, 168; governance in, 355; integrity of ruling class in early modern period, 214; late seventeenth to early nineteenth century in, 12, 208–12; Magyar raids into (tenth century), 187, 293; military forces of late seventeenth century in, 78–79, 208; military forces of Napoleonic period in, 214; Netherlands and, 377; New World imperialism of, 426, 432; religious war in, 201; representative assemblies in, 350; taxes and military commitments in, 369; university and academy development in, 485, 488; urban development in, 345. See also Gaul
Franks and Frankish kingdom, 12, 35, 153–61; Arab conquests and, 148, 149; aristocracy in, 213; demise of, 353; duration and scope of, 132, 134; East Roman Restoration and, 134, 137; land given in exchange for loyalty and military service in, 240–41; repulsion of Arabs and Berbers by, 512; royal governance in, 349; tax collection in, 237, 254, 565n68; weak internal governance in, 163, 214, 228, 238. See also Carolingian empire
Frederick I (German ruler), 165–66
Frederick II (German ruler), 166, 171, 174, 176, 178, 197, 347, 512, 541n11
freedom, 8, 538n11
Fronda, Michael P., 553n15
frontier theory, 275. See also steppe effect
Fukuyama, Francis, 539n26
Galileo Galilei, 474
Gaul: Arab conquests and, 139, 140; Carolingian empire and, 153; Celtic influence in, 522; East Roman restoration and, 132, 134; Habsburgs and, 198; language and writing in, 311–12, 601n39; Merovingians and, 237; Roman Empire’s conquest of, 83, 101, 198, 239; state deformation in, 234; taxation in, 234, 237, 254
Gelasius I (pope), 315
Gellner, Ernest, 86, 87, 553n7
Genghis Khan (Mongol ruler), 174, 186
Genoa, 355, 377, 430, 439, 450, 499, 509
geographic constr
aints and differences, 259–70, 331, 332, 429, 502, 526, 565n4; coastlines, 260–61; geographic determinism debunked, 270; mountains and rivers, 261–64, 499–500, 566n6, 566n10; plain regions and natural core, 264–66; shape, isolation, and scale, 266–69. See also counterfactual scenario for overseas exploration; specific mega-regions and countries
German empire, 164–73, 167; ability to sustain empire of, 12, 35, 172; aristocracy in, 213, 241; castle construction in, 169; church’s role in and relationship with, 171, 346, 347, 512; compared to China, 562n30; compared to Roman empire, 213; ducal elites in, 168–69, 241; failure to expand, 166, 168, 172–73; fragmentation into quasi-polities, 169, 228; governance in, 350; integrity of ruling class in, 214; internal conflicts in (1025 to 1142), 165; land given in exchange for loyalty and military service in, 235, 238, 240–41, 562n30; Magyar raids into (tenth century), 187, 293–94; military controlled by nobles in, 169–70, 237–38, 244, 245; no standing armies in, 238; weak central power coupled with fiscal constraints in, 169–70, 214; zones of armed conflict in, 168
Germanic languages, 311–12
Germany: position in Holy Roman Empire, 195; Protestants in, 196, 197. See also Holy Roman Empire; Prussia
“getting to Denmark,” 19, 539n26
Ghaznavids, 296, 301
ghost acreages, 424–25, 426–27, 588n12, 589n19, 589n21
Gibbon, Edward, 18, 128, 131, 149
Glahn, Richard von, 401, 412
globalization: criticism of and response to, 425–28; European colonial reach, 420–25, 452. See also maritime exploration and expansion; New World
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 18
Goffart, Walter, 236
Golden Horde in Eastern Europe, 183–85, 188–89, 213, 292
Goldscheid, Rudolf, 232
Goldstone, Jack, 208–10, 497, 560n16, 586n216, 595n38, 596n44, 597n68, 598n76
Goths and Gothic language, 311–12
Grainger, John D., 550n14
Great Divergence. See First Great Divergence (mid-first-millennium Europe); Second Great Divergence
Great Escape: British leading the way in, 363, 501; escape simile, 537n1, 539n26; Roman legacy and, 510–26; Second Industrial Revolution’s effect, 17; significance of, 1, 8, 27, 502; values at center of modernization and, 489
Greek city-states, 52, 56, 58, 91, 93, 95, 100, 103, 109; in counterfactual to Roman empire, 113–14, 121, 522, 553n7; maritime exploration by, 430; troop numbers for, 554n18
Greek language, 311, 522–23, 573nn5–6, 601n39
Greek mathematics, 524, 601n42
Gregory VII (pope), 165, 347
Gregory IX (pope), 176
Greif, Avner, 585n199
guilds, 352–54, 361, 382, 450, 496, 509
Gungwu, Wang, 444
gunpowder, 182, 200, 399, 452, 453, 558n20
Gupta empire, 40, 219, 295, 432
Guyuk (Mongol ruler), 175, 178, 183, 186, 188
Habsburgs (sixteenth century), 192–204; compared to Roman empire, 213; counterfactual scenario for, 12, 200–201, 215, 512–13, 559n55; failure to subdue Europe, 496; geopolitical dynamics in, 212, 421; integrity of ruling class in, 214; Napoleon and, 18. See also Holy Roman Empire
Hall, John, 358, 414, 515
Hall, T., 568n40
Han empire: ancestor worship in, 321; bureaucracy in, 226–27; central government control in, 43; compared to Roman empire, 311; Confucianism in, 324; decentralization during, 230; demise of, 241, 243, 250, 397, 405; First Great Divergence and, 229, 229; in heyday of empire, 281, 560n5; merchant class in, 397; mobilization in, 248, 551n29; patronage and simony in, 227; population of, 243, 564n57; steppe effect and, 284, 444; territorial expansion by, 222, 223
Hannibal, 77, 94, 103, 118–19, 553n16
Hansen, Mogens H., 549n5
Harsha empire, 40, 219, 296
Hartmann, Mary S., 598n81
Heather, Peter, 268
Henry I (German ruler), 164
Henry II (German ruler), 165
Henry III (English king), 176
Henry IV (German ruler), 165, 347, 512
Henry V (German ruler), 165, 166
Henry VIII (English king), 197, 200, 370, 378
Hinduism, 329
Hitler, Adolf, 36, 37, 212
Hittites, 90
Hobbes, Thomas, 370, 474
Hoffman, Philip, 260, 327, 452, 567n26, 574n13
Hohenstaufen dynasty, 165, 177
Holland, Cecilia, 190–91
Holy Roman Empire, 192–204, 194; counterfactual scenario for, 200–201, 215, 512–13, 559n55; duration of, 43, 541n11; Germany’s position in, 195; northern Low Countries’ revolt against Philip II, 202; resistance to concept of empire within, 195–96
Hoppit, Julian, 381
horses and equine warfare. See cavalry warfare; ecology
Hudson Bay Company, 386
Huguenots, 378
Hume, David, 473
Hundred Years’ War, 366, 374, 578n59
Hungary: Austria’s claim to, 196; Golden Bull, 350; Mongol incursion into, 175–78, 180–82, 185, 187; Ottoman control of, 204; in tenth century, 268. See also Avars; Magyars
Huns, 130–31, 133, 135, 182, 187, 292, 295, 300
Hurrians, 90
Hus, Jan, 474
Iberian peninsula: Arab conquest of, 139–40, 142–43, 148, 150, 153, 302, 317, 512; British exports to, 423; Castile kingdom in, 176, 431; fiscal value to Roman Empire, 130, 234, 255; language and writing in, 311–12; Magyars in, 187; Napoleon in, 209, 211; Ottomans in, 207; parliamentary tradition in, 350; Roman military mobilizations in, 78, 80–81, 94, 103, 106, 239; Visigoths in, 132, 134, 148, 236, 317
ideologies of imperial unity, 320–28, 329, 331
Ilkhanate in Iran and Iraq, 183–85, 189, 213, 563n30
Inca empire, 193
India: cotton exports from, 426, 427, 589n20; foreign conquest of, 415; fragmentation in, 257, 573n8; geography of, 265, 295; Islamic invasion in, 416–17; Mongols in, 182, 185, 192; no Enlightenment period in, 483–84; patterns of empire, 10, 39–40, 40, 415–16; Portuguese expansion into, 431; post-Gupta period regional empires in, 415–16; post-nineteenth-century economic development in, 2; religious beliefs in, 329; rivers and flooding in, 500; steppe effect and, 295–98. See also Mughals
Indonesia, 47, 430, 434
Industrial Revolution(s): China compared to Europe and, 413–14; conditions conducive to, 392; England as cradle of, 377–82; First Industrial Revolution, 17, 425, 426, 428, 486–88, 491–95, 582n121, 598n81; modern Great Divergence and, 13, 337; Second Industrial Revolution, 6–7, 17. See also England/Britain; Second Great Divergence
Indus Valley, 113, 140, 552n5
Inikori, Joseph, 423
Innocent III (pope), 347
Innocent IV (pope), 347
innovation: Chinese stifling of, 396–400, 415, 479–85; Enlightenment and, 473–79; in Europe and England, 391, 393, 415; Industrial Enlightenment of Britain and, 485–88, 497; knowledge and scientific inquiry, 472–73, 478–79; macroinventions and microinventions, 486; in Roman empire, 504–5; technological innovation of Industrial Revolutions, 6, 472, 487; values of modernization and, 488–91
institutions: Chinese imperial institutions, 392–96; European institutionalization of progress, 344–67, 376, 390–92, 582n136; importance of, 326–27
international trade. See specific countries and empires
Iran: competitor to Roman empire in, 84, 223; in counterfactual assuming no Roman empire, 522; ecology of, 298–301; Safavids in, 207–8, 301; steppe effect and, 298–301, 302; trade with, 456. See also Achaemenid empire; Sasanians
Iraq, 143–46, 182–85, 207, 255–56, 565n71. See also Mesopotamia
Islam and Islamization, 142–43, 150, 317, 573n9; decline in learning and scientific research and, 482–84, 595n32; Islamic (conquest) polity, 587n219; Islamic trusts (waqf), 418; language differences among constituencies of, 329
Italy: aristocracy in, 241; coalition of city-states in, 213; coast
line of, 260; commune movement in, 352; German campaigns against (tenth and twelfth centuries), 165, 166; kingdom of, 157; language and writing in, 312; Magyar raids into (tenth century), 187, 293; trade with Byzantium, 509
Iuba II (king of Mauretania), 432
Ivan III (Grand Prince of Moscow), 189
James II (English king), 208–9
Japan: claiming parts of China, 41; Mongols and, 192; Qing and, 306; as secondary Chinese state, 230; Tokugawa Shogunate (after 1600), 452; transformative economic development in, 2
Jews, 360, 378, 483
Jin dynasty (China): conflict under, 227, 242, 253; decentralization during, 230; demise of, 242; ecology and, 280, 282; imperial restoration under, 241–42; militarization under, 242–43; religious beliefs under, 318
John Bar Penkaye, 143
Jones, Eric, 265, 344, 359, 388, 393, 495, 514–15, 592n85
Julian (Roman emperor), 320
Julius Caesar, 101, 198, 239, 562n30
Jurchen empire, 41, 174, 230, 285, 288
Kant, Immanuel, 337–38
Karayalcin, Cem, 598n79
Kassites, 90
Kasten, Brigitte, 555n37, 555n40
Kavadh I (Sasanian king), 300
Kennedy, Hugh, 141
Kepler, Johannes, 483
Khorasan, 143, 144, 301, 572n94
Khwarezmian empire, 174, 301
Kievan Rus’, 175, 291
knowledge and scientific inquiry, 472–73, 485–88, 497; Greek influences, 523–24, 601n42; Islamic decline in learning and scientific research, 482–84, 595n32; liberty and dignity for ordinary people tied to, 489; “Republic of Letters,” 475, 516, 595n38; in Roman empire, 504–5; values of modernization and, 488–91. See also innovation
Ko, Chiu Yu, 306, 573n102, 587n224
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