Valmiki's Ramayana
Page 6
* A. K. Ramanujan, ‘Three Hundred Rāmāyaṇas: Five Examples and Three Thoughts of Translation’ in Many Rāmāyaṇas: The Diversity of a Narrative Tradition in South Asia edited by Paula Richman (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1994), p. 46.
† For purposes of clarity in this Introduction, I will follow A. K. Ramanujan (see ‘Three Hundred Rāmāyaṇas’) and make a distinction, as does the tradition itself, between the story of Rāma (Rām-kathā ) and the texts composed by specific people, like Vālmīki, Kamban, Krittibasa, etc. Thus, when it is Vālmīki’s poem that is being referred to, I shall use Rāmāyaṇa and when the larger family or tellings and retellings is being referred to, I shall use the term ‘Rāma story’.
‡ See Robert Goldman, ‘General Introduction’, The Bālakāṇd.a of Vālmīki’s Rāmāyaṇa: A National Epic of India (Princeton University Press: 1985) and A. K. Ramanujan, ‘Three Hundred Rāmāyaṇas’.
§ Goldman, ‘General Introduction’ in The Bālakāṇd.a of Vālmīki’s Rāmāyaṇa, p. 41.
¶ See Ramanujan, ‘Three Hundred Rāmāyaṇas’, Goldman, ‘General Introduction’ in The Bālakāṇd.a and Sheldon Pollock, ‘Rākṣasas and Others’, in Indologica Taurinensia, vol. 13, 1985–86.
** Goldman, ‘General Introduction’ In The Bālakāṇd.a, p. 54.
†† See the section on ‘Rāma’s Divinity’ for a further discussion of this issue.
‡‡ See below for a longer discussion of this issue.
§§ See Goldman, ‘Structure, Substance and Function in the Great Sanskrit Epics’, p. 18. Paper delivered at the Festival of India Conference on Indian Literatures at the University of Chicago, April 1986. Goldman argues that the Rāmāyaṇa is dominated by karūnarasa, grief.
¶¶ See, for example, Veena Das, ‘Kāma in the scheme of puruṣārthas: the story of Rāma’ in Way of Life: King, Householder, Renouncer edited by T. N. Madan (New Delhi, Vikas Publishing House: 1982).
*** Veena Das, ‘Kāma in the scheme of puruṣārthas: the story of Rāma,’ pp. 194–95.
††† Kathleen M. Erndl, ‘The Mutilation of Śūrpanakhā’ p. 83 in Many Rāmāyaṇa edited by Paula Richman.
‡‡‡ See Sally Sutherland, ‘The Bad Seed: Senior Wives and Elder Sons’ in Bridging Worlds: Studies on Women in South Asia edited by Sally J. M. Sutherland, Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1992.
§§§ See Erndl ‘The Mutilation of Śūrpanakhā ’ and Sutherland ‘The Bad Seed’.
¶¶¶ In fact, the word asura literally means ‘anti-god’.
**** For a detailed discussion of this issue, see Wendy Doniger O’Flaherty, The Origins of Evil in Hindu Mythology (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976).
†††† See Sheldon Pollock, ‘Rākṣasas and Others’.
‡‡‡‡ See the following section of the Introduction for a longer and more systematic discussion of this issue.
§§§§ See Sheldon Pollock, ‘The Divine King in the Indian Epic’, in Journal of the American Oriental Society 104 (1984), pp. 505–28.
¶¶¶¶ Ibid., pp. 516–7.
***** David Shulman, ‘Fire and Flood: The Testing of Sītā in Kamban’s Irāmavatāram,’ p. 93 in Many Rāmāyaṇas, edited by Paula Richman.
††††† I borrow this phrase from David Shulman. See ‘Fire and Flood: The Testing of Sītā in Kamban’s Irāmavataram,’ p. 95.
‡‡‡‡‡ Wendy Doniger O’Flaherty, Other People’s Myths p. 150 (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1988).
§§§§§ David Shulman, cited in Wendy Doniger O’Flaherty, Other People’s Myths, pp. 150–51.
¶¶¶¶¶ Robert Goldman in ‘Structure, Substance and Function in the Great Epics of India,’ pp. 7–8.
****** Alf Hiltebeitel, The Ritual of Battle: Krishna in the Mahābhārata (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1976).
†††††† See Pollock, ‘The Divine King in the Indian Epic,’ p. 509.
‡‡‡‡‡‡ Lectures during a course on Indian Civilizations at the University of Chicago, 1986–87.
§§§§§§ Since the bulk of the Rāmāyaṇa was most probably composed by a single person and there is nothing that either proves or disproves the existence of a historical person called Vālmīki, scholars are willing to accept that Vālmīki was the primary author of the Rāmāyaṇa.
¶¶¶¶¶¶ Goldman, ‘General Introduction’ in The Bālakāṇd.a of Vālmīki’s Rāmāyaṇa, pp. 32–33.
******* Most of the material in this section is taken from the introduction to my dissertation, ‘Hanumān in the Vālmīki Rāmāyaṇa: A Study in Ambiguity’, University of Chicago, 1990.
††††††† Alf Hiltebeitel, The Ritual of Battle: Krishna in the Mahābhārata, pp. 14–15.
‡‡‡‡‡‡‡ A. K. Ramanujan, ‘Three Hundred Rāmāyaṇas’ in Many Rāmāyaṇas.
Childhood
Chapter One
The great sage Vālmīki was a bull among men who practised austerities constantly. One day he said to the eloquent Nārada, ‘Tell me, great one, who is the most virtuous man in the world of humans? Who is the most honourable, dutiful, gracious and resolute? Who is the most courteous, the most dedicated to the welfare of all beings, the most learned, the most patient and handsome? Who is the man with the greatest soul, the one who has conquered anger, who is intelligent and free of envy? Who is this man, whose anger frightens even the gods? I am sure you know of such a man and I am curious to hear about him from you.’
Nārada, who knows the past, the present and the future, was delighted with Vālmīki’s question. ‘There are few men with all the qualities that you have described,’ he replied. ‘But there is one man, O sage, who has all these virtues. Listen, and I will tell you about him.
‘Born into the clan of Ikṣvāku, his name is Rāma. He is brave and illustrious, disciplined and renowned in all the three worlds. He is wise and well-versed in the science of polity. He is well-spoken and glorious. This man, a slayer of his enemies, has broad shoulders and strong upper arms, a graceful neck and a strong jaw. He is a skilled archer with a muscular body and long arms. He holds his head with pride and he walks with long strides. Splendid and prosperous, he has smooth skin and large eyes. His well-proportioned body is endowed with all the auspicious marks.
‘Rāma is aware of his duties. He is truthful and dedicated to the welfare of his subjects. He is learned, virtuous and single-minded. He protects all the creatures of the world and he upholds dharma.* He knows the four Vedas as well as the schools of thought that accompany each of them and he is equally knowledgeable about the finer points of archery. Well-versed in the sacred and philosophical texts, Rāma has a brilliant memory and a ready wit. This courteous, brave and wise man is loved by all who know him. As all rivers flow into the sea, so all good and noble people come to Rāma.
‘This virtuous man is the son of Kausalyā. Viṣṇu’s equal in valour, he is as deep as the ocean and as resolute as the mountains. As beautiful as the moon, he has the endurance of the earth, but he can be like the doomsday fire when he is roused to anger. As generous as Kubera, the god of wealth, Rāma is ready to sacrifice everything for the truth.
‘Because of Rāma’s many virtues, King Daśratha decided to declare him the heir apparent. Rāma is the oldest and most beloved son of King Daśaratha, who was devoted to the welfare of all creatures. But when Daśaratha’s wife, Kaikeyī, saw the magnificent preparations for Rāma’s coronation, she called up the promises Daśaratha had made to her in the distant past, promises that exiled Rāma to the forest and placed her son, Bharata, on the throne. Bound by dharma and his given word, Daśaratha had to banish his beloved heir. Rāma went to the forest to pres
erve his father’s honour and to make Kaikeyī happy.
‘Rāma’s younger brother Lakṣmaṇa, the son of Sumitrā, followed him into exile because he loved him dearly and because it was the right thing to do. Rāma’s virtuous wife Sītā, the most excellent of all women, also followed her husband into exile as the constellation Rohiṇī follows the moon.† When Rāma left the city, King Daśaratha and the townspeople went with him for a distance, but at the village of Śṛngavera, on the banks of the Gangā, Rāma dismissed his charioteer.
‘The sage Bharadvāja told Rāma and his companions to go to Citrakūṭa and Rāma, Lakṣmaṇa and Sītā went from forest to forest crossing many deep rivers on their way. In the pleasant surroundings of Citrakūṭa, the three of them built a little hut and lived there as happily as the gods and the gandharvas. Meanwhile, Daśaratha missed his son sorely and while Rāma was in Citrakūṭa, the old king died of grief.
‘When Daśaratha died, the brahmins led by Vasiṣṭha offered the throne to the heroic Bharata. But Bharata refused the throne and went into the forest to meet Rāma. Rāma urged Bharata to return to the city to rule and finally he gave Bharata his sandals as a symbol of his regency. Bharata touched his older brother’s feet and, acceding to his wishes, ruled the kingdom from Nandigrāma while he waited for Rāma’s return.
‘Rāma knew that if he stayed in Citrakūṭa the townspeople would visit him all the time. So he moved further into the Daṇḍaka forest. Rāma killed the rākṣasa Virādha there and then went onwards to visit the sage Agastya and his brother. Rāma took Indra’s bow, a sword and two inexhaustible quivers of arrows from Agastya. While Rāma lived in the forest, he was approached by the sages who dwelt there. They asked him to kill the rākṣasas and asuras who harassed them and Rāma did so.
‘An ugly and terrifying rākṣasī named Śūrpanakhā, who could change her form at will, lived in Janasthāna. On her instructions, Khara, Triśiras, Dūṣaṇa and all the other rākṣasas arrived in Janasthāna and made preparations to fight Rāma. But Rāma killed them and their companions, slaying fourteen thousand rākṣasas in all.
‘Rāvaṇa was enraged when he heard about this massacre and enlisted the rākṣasa Mārīca to help him take revenge. Mārīca implored Rāvaṇa time and again not to oppose Rāma, whose strength was far greater, but impelled by destiny, Rāvaṇa ignored Mārīca’s advice and took him to Rāma’s forest dwelling.
‘Mārīca drew the two princes away with his power to create illusions and Rāvaṇa abducted Rāma’s wife Sītā, killing the vulture Jaṭāyu as he carried her away. Rāma met the dying vulture and when he heard about Sītā’s abduction, he was overcome with sadness and began to weep. He performed funeral rites for Jaṭāyu and then wandered through the forest in search of his wife.
‘In his wanderings, he came upon the deformed and fierce rākṣasa Kabandha. Mighty Rāma killed the rākṣasa and performed funeral rites for him so that Kabandha could go to heaven.
‘By the shores of lake Pampā, Rāma met the monkey Hanumān. Following Hanumān’s advice, Rāma went to meet Sugrīva and told him his entire story. In turn, Sugrīva related all that he had suffered as a result of his enmity with Vālī and he also warned Rāma about Vālī’s strength. Rāma promised to kill Vālī but Sugrīva was not convinced of his prowess. To prove himself, Rāma kicked Dundhubi’s immense carcass with his big toe and it landed ten yojanās away. Then he pierced seven sāla trees with a single well-chosen arrow. The arrow passed through a huge mountain and lodged itself in the bowels of the earth.
‘Sugrīva’s confidence in Rāma grew, as did his affection for him when he saw this. He returned to his cave in Kiṣkindha, taking Rāma with him. Yellow-eyed Sugrīva roared like thunder and Vālī, the king of the monkeys, came out to meet his challenge. Rāma kept his word to Sugrīva and killed Vālī in battle. Then he bestowed the monkey kingdom on Sugrīva.
‘Sugrīva called together the respected monkey chiefs and despatched them in all directions to look for Sītā. Instructed by the vulture Sampāti, Hanumān leapt one hundred yojanās across the salty seas and entered the city of Lankā which was protected by Rāvaṇa. Hanumān found Sītā in a grove of aśoka trees, where she sat with her mind fixed on Rāma. He gave her Rāma’s signet ring and told her all that had happened. After he had reassured and comforted Sītā, he tore down the city gate.
‘Hanumān killed five of Rāvaṇa’s generals and seven of his ministers’ sons. He pulverized the mighty Akṣaya and ground him into the dust. Then he allowed himself to be captured. Even though Hanumān knew he could not be harmed by the weapon Brahmā had given Rāvaṇa, he submitted to the rākṣasas and suffered many indignities. He burned the city of Lankā, sparing only the place where Sītā was. Then he returned to give Rāma news of his beloved.
‘He honoured Rāma and related all he had seen in great detail. Rāma went to the seashore with Sugrīva and pierced the ocean with his blazing arrows. The Lord of the Ocean himself appeared before Rāma and on his instructions, Nala built a bridge over the seas. Rāma used the bridge to reach the city of Lankā where he killed Rāvaṇa in battle. He crowned Vibhīṣaṇa king of the rākṣasas.
‘Rāma took Sītā back but she was humiliated when he spoke to her harshly in front of all the people gathered there. Unable to bear the shame, that virtuous woman entered the fire. But as she entered the flames, flowers rained down from the sky and Agni declared her to be a chaste and honourable woman.
‘The gods and the sages and all the animate and inanimate beings in the three worlds were delighted with Rāma’s great deeds. The gods honoured Rāma and there was rejoicing among all the creatures. A boon from the gods brought all the slain monkeys back to life. Rāma climbed into Puṣpaka, the flying chariot, and set off for Nandigrāma. When he reached there, he cut off his matted locks. Now that he had regained his wife, Rāma, the sinless one, went back to his kingdom with his brothers.
‘The townspeople were glad to have him back. Rāma’s presence made them virtuous, free of sickness, famine, fear and danger. No one had to witness the death of their sons, no woman was widowed and they all lived lives of devotion to their husbands. There was no fear of storms, nor of death by water, nor fear of fire nor plague nor fever. With a great expenditure of riches and gold, Rāma performed all the necessary rituals and sacrifices, including the aśvamedha sacrifice.‡ He gave away many cows and large quantities of land. The prestige of his royal clan increased a hundredfold because of his deeds and all the four castes remained dedicated to their duties in this world. After ruling for eleven thousand years, Rāma went to Brahmaloka.
‘The story of Rāma is edifying and bestows merit. Anyone who reads it is freed of all sins. The man who reads the Rāmayana will be honoured along with his sons, grandsons and companions when he dies and goes to heaven. The brahmin who reads this tale will become eloquent, the kṣatriya will become a king, the vaiśya’s trade will prosper and even the śūdra will flourish in his own caste.’
* Dharma, one of the central concepts in Hinduism, is impossible to translate into English with a single word. It encompasses ideas of the right, the good, truth, law (temporal and spiritual) as well as the ‘ought.’ Where possible in this translation, I have used the English words ‘righteous’ or ‘honourable.’ In sentences where these adjectives could not be used with felicity, I have retained the Sanskrit dharma.
† Rohiṇī is the ninth lunar asterism, personified as a daughter of Dakṣa and the favourite wife of the moon.
‡ The horse sacrifice which dates back to the Vedic period. A perfect horse is allowed to wander freely through neighbouring kingdoms for one year. Anyone that stops the horse must fight the army that follows it. At the end of the year, the horse is ceremonially sacrificed. A hundred such sacrifices entitled the king who performed them to displace the king of the gods.
Chapter Two
The great sage V
ālmīki and his disciples honoured and praised Nārada when he had finished his story. Nārada bade them farewell, ascended into the skies and returned to the realm of the gods. Vālmīki went to the banks of the river Tamasā, not far from the Gangā. He gazed at the calm, clear waters of the river and said to his disciple who was standing behind him, ‘Look at these clear waters, Bharadvāja! They are as calm and serene as the mind of a good man! I want to bathe here. Child, put down your pot and fetch me my clothes.’* Bharadvāja obeyed and brought his teacher’s robe to him. Vālmīki who had controlled his senses, took the garment and walked around, enjoying the beauty of the verdant forests.
Vālmīki came upon two sweet-voiced kraunca birds making love. He saw a cruel hunter shoot the male, and the golden-crested bird fell to the ground. When his mate saw that he was dead, she cried out piteously. Compassion welled up in Vālmīki’s heart when he saw the fallen bird, killed so unrighteously, and the grief of its mate. Deeply moved, he said, ‘Hunter, because you killed this bird while he was making love, you shall never find a resting place!’