The Book of the Courtier

by Baldassare Castiglione

  After having spoken in this way, Federico appeared to pause for a moment. But then signor Morello da Ortona said abruptly:

  ‘It seems to me that these rules of yours teach us very little; and for myself I’m no wiser than I was before you explained them, although I do remember having heard them some time or other from the friars at confession, and I believe they called them “the circumstances”.’

  Federico laughed when he heard this and then he went on:

  ‘If you remember, yesterday evening the Count said he wished the courtier’s chief profession to be that of arms, and he spoke at length about the way he should pursue it. So we shall not repeat this. All the same, it should also be understood from the rule I gave that when the courtier finds himself involved in a skirmish or pitched battle, or something of that nature, he should arrange to withdraw discreetly from the main body and accomplish the bold and notable exploits he has to perform in as small a company as possible and in view of all the noblest and most eminent men of the army, and, above all, in the presence, or if possible under the very eyes, of the prince he is serving. For it is certainly right to exploit the things one does well. And I believe that just as it is wrong to seek false glory or what is not deserved, so also it is wrong to cheat oneself of due honour and not to seek that praise which is the only true reward of prowess. And I recall in the past having known men who, though very able, were extremely stupid in this regard and would as soon risk their lives to capture a flock of sheep as in being the first to scale the walls of a besieged town; but this is not how our courtier will behave if he bears in mind the motive that leads him to war, which ought to be honour pure and simple. But, then, if he happens to engage in arms in some public spectacle, such as jousting, tourneying or volleying, or other kind of physical recreation, mindful of where and in whose presence he is, he will make sure that he is as elegant and attractive in the exercise of arms as he is competent, and that he feeds the eyes of those who are looking on with everything that can give him added grace. He will ensure that the horse he has is beautifully caparisoned, that he himself is suitably attired, with appropriate mottoes and ingenious devices to attract the eyes of the onlookers in his direction as surely as the loadstone attracts iron. He will never be one of the last to show himself, knowing that the crowd, and especially the women, scrutinize the first far more than the last. For at the beginning our eyes and our minds are avid for this kind of novelty, take note of every least thing and are impressed by it; whereas by and by they are not only sated but wearied by what they see. Thus there was a great actor of the ancient world who, for this reason, always insisted on being the first on stage to say his part. Then again, to continue speaking of arms, our courtier will pay attention to the occupation of those with whom he is speaking and will behave accordingly; and he will speak one way with men and another way with women; and if he should want to suggest something to his own credit, he will do it with dissimulation, as if purely by chance, and in passing, and with the discretion and caution that Count Lodovico explained to us yesterday.

  ‘Now don’t you think, signor Morello, that our rules are able to teach something? Do you not agree that that friend of ours, of whom I spoke to you the other day, had completely forgotten whom he was talking to and why, when, to entertain a lady whom he had never seen before, he began their conversation by announcing that he had slaughtered so many men, how fierce he was, and that he knew how to wield a sword with both hands? And before he left her he was wanting to teach her how certain blows of the battle-axe should be parried, both when one was armed and when one was unarmed, and the various ways of brandishing a sword, until the poor girl was suffering agonies and every moment seemed like an eternity till she could make her escape before being cut down like the others. These are the kind of mistakes made by those who have no regard for those “circumstances” you say the friars told you about.

  ‘So now as far as sports are concerned, there are some which are hardly ever performed except in public, including jousting, tourneying and dart throwing, and all the rest in which weapons are used. When, therefore, our courtier has to take part in these, first he must arrange to be so well equipped as to horses, weapons and dress that nothing is lacking; and if he does not feel assured that everything is just as it should be he must on no account take part, for if he fails to perform well he cannot excuse himself by saying that this is not his profession. Next he should give full consideration to the kind of audience present and to who his companions are; for it would be unbecoming for a gentleman to honour by his personal appearance some country show, where the spectators and participants were common people.’

  At this, signor Pallavicino said: ‘In Lombardy we are not so fussy. On the contrary, many of our young gentlemen are to be found, on holidays, dancing all day in the open air with the peasants, and taking part with them in sports such as throwing the bar, wrestling, running and jumping. And I’m sure there is no harm in this, for the contest is not one of nobility but of strength and agility, regarding which ordinary villagers are often just as good as nobles; and I think this kind of familiar behaviour has a certain charming open-mindedness about it.’

  ‘Well, to me,’ replied Federico, ‘this dancing in the open air is most displeasing, and I can see no advantages in it at all. But if anyone is anxious to wrestle, to run or to jump with peasants, then he ought, in my opinion, to do it casually, out of noblesse oblige, so to say, and certainly not in competition with them; and he should be almost certain of winning, or else not take part at all, for it is too sad and shocking, and quite undignified, when a gentleman is seen to be beaten by a peasant, especially in a wrestling-match. Hence I think it would be as well to abstain, at least when there are many onlookers, because the advantage in winning is very negligible and the disadvantages in being beaten very serious. The game of tennis is also nearly always played before an audience, and it is one of those spectacles which gains considerably from the presence of a crowd. So I would like our courtier to take part in this game and in all the others, apart from those involving the use of arms, as an amateur, making it clear that he neither seeks nor expects any applause. Nor, even though his performance is outstanding, should he let it be thought that he has spent on it much time or trouble. Neither should he behave like those people who are fond of music and, whenever they are speaking with someone, if there is a lull in the conversation always start to sing sotto voce; or like others who, walking through the streets or in church, are for ever dancing; or like others who, when they meet a friend in the square or wherever it happens to be, immediately act as if about to fence or to wrestle, depending on their favourite sport.’

  Here Cesare Gonzaga said: ‘One of the young cardinals we have in Rome does even better. Because he fancies himself as an athlete, when people come to see him, even if he has never met them before, he leads them into his garden, and insists against all protests that they should strip down and try to beat him at jumping.’

  Federico laughed at this, and then he went on:

  ‘There are various other kinds of recreation, such as dancing, that can be enjoyed in public and in private. And I consider that the courtier should take great care over this; for when he is dancing in front of a crowd and along with many others it is fitting, or so I think, that he should maintain a certain dignity, though tempered by the lightness and delicate grace of his movements. He may feel himself to be very light on his feet and a master of time and movement, but even so he should not attempt those quick movements of the feet and double steps which we approve of in our Barletta but which, to be sure, are unsuitable for a gentleman. On the other hand, when he is performing in a private room, of the kind we are in now, then I think he should be allowed to try them, and to dance the morris and the brando3 as well, but not in public unless he is at a masked ball, when it does no harm even if he is recognized. Indeed, there is no better way of demonstrating one’s skill in such things at public spectacles, whether armed or not; because masquerading carries with it a
certain licence and liberty, and this, among other things, enables the courtier to choose the role at which he feels himself best, to bring out its most important elements with diligence and elegance, while showing a certain nonchalance with regard to what is not essential. All of this greatly enhances the attractiveness of what he is doing, as when a youth dresses up as an old man yet wears loose attire so as to be able to show his agility; or when a knight dresses up as a country shepherd, but rides a beautiful horse and wears a handsome and appropriate costume. For the spectators assume they are seeing what they are meant to imagine, and then when shown far more than what is promised by the costume being worn they are highly amused and delighted.

  ‘Then again, in games and festivities like these, when people are masked, it would not be right for the prince to choose to play the part of the prince himself, since the pleasure which the spectators derive from the novelty of the proceedings would be almost entirely lost, seeing that everyone already knows quite well who he is. Moreover, when he wishes to play as well as to be the prince, he sacrifices the freedom to do all those things that are below his dignity; and, besides, if there is any competitive element in the games, especially in arms, he would also make people think that he wanted to maintain his identity so as not to be beaten by others but indulged. In addition, by acting in a game in the same way as he must act in real life, he would undermine his lawful authority and make it seem that real life, too, was a game. But if on these occasions the prince puts off his royal identity and mixes with his inferiors as an equal (though in such a way that he is still recognizable) in putting aside his own he achieves an even higher stature, by striving to surpass others by prowess and not by authority and showing that it is not being a prince that accounts for his worth.

  ‘It follows that in my opinion the courtier when taking part in military displays must observe the same kind of discretion appropriate to his rank. Then in saddle vaulting, in wrestling, in running and jumping, I should certainly like him to refrain from mixing with the common people, or at least to appear among them only on the rarest occasions. For there is nothing so perfect in the world that the ignorant do not tire of it and despise it when they see it often. My judgement is the same with regard to music. Thus I should not like our courtier to behave as do so many others who as soon as they put in an appearance, even in the presence of gentlemen who are strangers to them, immediately, hardly waiting to be asked, start showing off what they know, and often what they don’t know, in such a way that it seems they have come along just for this purpose and that it is their main pursuit in life. So the courtier should turn to music as if it were merely a pastime of his and he is yielding to persuasion, and not in the presence of common people or a large crowd. And although he may know and understand what he is doing, in this also I wish him to dissimulate the care and effort that are necessary for any competent performance; and he should let it seem as if he himself thinks nothing of his accomplishment which, because of its excellence, he makes others think very highly of.’

  Then signor Gaspare Pallavicino remarked:

  ‘There exist many different kinds of music, both vocal and instrumental. So I would be gratified to hear which is the best of all and on what occasion the courtier should perform.’

  ‘Truly beautiful music,’ answered Federico, ‘consists, in my opinion, in fine singing, in reading accurately from the score and in an attractive personal style, and still more in singing to the accompaniment of the viola. I say this because the solo voice contains all the purity of music, and style and melody are studied and appreciated more carefully when our ears are not distracted by more than one voice, and every little fault, too, is more clearly apparent, something which does not happen when a group is singing, because then one singer covers up for the other. But above all, singing poetry accompanied by the viola seems especially pleasurable, for the instrument gives the words a really marvellous charm and effectiveness. All keyboard instruments, indeed, are harmonious, because their consonances are perfect and they make possible many effects which fill the soul with sweetness and melody. And no less delightful is the playing of a quartet, with the viols producing music of great skill and suavity. The human voice adds ornament and grace to all these instruments, with which I think it is good enough if our courtier has some acquaintance (though the more proficient he is the better) without concerning himself greatly with those which both Minerva and Alcibiades rejected, because it seems they have something repulsive about them.4 Then as to the occasions when these various kinds of music should be performed, I would instance when a man finds himself in the company of dear and familiar friends, and there is no pressing business on hand. But above all, the time is appropriate when there are ladies present; for the sight of them softens the hearts of those who are listening, makes them more susceptible to the sweetness of the music, and also quickens the spirit of the musicians themselves. As I have already said, one should avoid playing in the presence of a large number, especially of the common people. But in any case, everything should be tempered by discretion; for it is just not possible to imagine all the circumstances possible, and if the courtier is a good judge of himself he will adapt himself to the occasion and will know when his audience is in the mood to listen and when not; and he will act his own age, for it is certainly most unbecoming and unsightly when an old grey-haired gentleman, who is toothless and wrinkled, takes up the viola and plays and sings in front of a gathering of ladies, even if his performance is quite good. This is because the words of songs are nearly always amorous, and in old men love is altogether ridiculous; although it sometimes seems that Cupid along with the other miracles he works delights in melting even the icy hearts of the old.’

  Then the Magnifico replied: ‘Do not rob such poor old men of this pleasure, Federico; for I have known men of advanced years who possess the most perfect voices and are accomplished musicians, and far more so than some young men.’

  ‘It is not my wish,’ answered Federico, ‘to rob them of this pleasure, but it certainly is my wish to rob you and these ladies of the chance to laugh at their absurdity; and if old men have the desire to sing to the viola, then let them do so in private with the object of shedding from their minds the disturbing thoughts and bitter vexations of which life is full, and of tasting the divinity which, I believe, Pythagoras and Socrates attributed to music. And even if they do not practise it themselves, if they have cultivated a taste for music they will enjoy it far more than those who know nothing about it. After all, very often, because he exercises them a great deal, a blacksmith whose body is otherwise puny will have stronger arms than someone who is more robust; likewise, someone whose ears have been trained to listen to harmony will understand it better and more readily and appreciate it more intelligently than others whose hearing may be very sharp and sound but whose ears are untrained in the varieties of musical consonances; for the modulations of music have no significance for ears that are unaccustomed to them, though admittedly music can tame even a wild animal. This, then, is the pleasure that old men may suitably take in music. And I am of the same opinion as regards dancing; because, to be sure, such pleasures ought to be given freely before we are forced to abandon them because of our years.’

  ‘Well then,’ broke in signor Morello, as if he were angry, ‘you mean it is better to exclude all the old men and to reserve the name of courtier just for the young?’

  Federico replied with a laugh: ‘Consider, signor Morello, that those who are fond of these things even if they are not young are anxious to appear so; and so they dye their hair and trim their beard twice a week for the simple reason that Nature is tacitly telling them that such things are only fitting for the young.’

  At this, all the ladies burst out laughing, because they realized that these words were aimed at signor Morello himself; and as for him, he seemed quite disconcerted.

  ‘But of course,’ Federico added quickly, ‘there are other kinds of recreation to be enjoyed with the ladies that are suitable fo
r old men.’

  ‘And what are they?’ asked signor Morello. ‘Telling stories?’

  ‘That as well,’ said Federico. ‘But, as you know, every age brings its own cares with it, and has its own characteristic vices and virtues. For example, old men, just as they are usually more prudent than young men, and wiser and more continent, so they are more loquacious, meaner, more difficult and more timid; and then again, about the house they are for ever scolding, they are harsh to their children, and they always want their own way. In contrast, young men are spirited, generous and frank, but also quick to start a quarrel, volatile, loving and hating the same instant, wrapped up in their own pleasures, resentful of good advice. However, of all possible ages, the age of manhood is the most composed, since it has shed the unpleasant attributes of youth and not yet attained those of old age. The old and the young, being at the two extremes as it were, must learn how to behave reasonably and correct the faults planted in them by Nature. Thus old men should be on their guard against praising themselves too much and against the other faults we have noted as characteristic, and they must make use of the prudence and knowledge they will have acquired through their long experience, act like oracles to whom everyone will turn for advice, talk good sense with grace and dignity, and accompany the gravity of their years with a certain amusing and measured humour. In this way they will be good courtiers, they will be good company whether with men or women, and they will always be welcome, without needing to sing or dance; and when the need arises, they will prove their worth in matters of importance.

  ‘Young men should be just as careful and judicious, not of course after the fashion of the old (since what is suitable for the one would hardly be so for the other, and it is usual to say that too much wisdom is a bad sign in a young man) but in correcting their natural faults. Thus it pleases me greatly to see a young man, especially when he is engaging in arms, be somewhat grave and taciturn, and I like to see him self-possessed, without those restless ways that are so common at that age; for then he appears to possess a certain something that the others lack. Moreover, a relaxed attitude of this kind suggests a kind of impressive strength, since it appears to arise not from anger but from deliberation, and to be ruled by reason rather than by emotion. This quality is nearly always to be found in men of real courage, and we also see it in those wild beasts which are nobler and more powerful than the rest, such as the lion and the eagle. Nor is this strange, since a sudden and impetuous movement which, without words or any show of anger, erupts in a concentrated burst, like the explosion of a cannon, following the quietness which is its opposite, is far more violent and furious than one which mounts in intensity little by little, getting hotter only by degrees. Thus those who, when they are about to embark on some enterprise, talk such a lot and hop from one foot to another without ceasing, seem to exhaust themselves before they start; and, as our Pietro Monte rightly says, they act like children in the dark singing to themselves to pluck up courage, as if they were driving away their fears with song. So just as in a young man a measured and sober youthfulness is most praiseworthy, since it tempers and corrects the levity which is the characteristic vice of that time of life, so in an old man we must esteem a fresh and spirited old age, because then the vigour of his soul seems so robust that it warms and strengthens a time of life that is weak and cold, maintaining it in that middle condition which is the best time of our life.