Sword of the Gladiatrix

by Faith L Justice

  So our two primary sources contradict one another and one contradicts himself. Plus we have to remember these were two Roman elite men writing for other Roman elite men. Richard Hingley and Christina Unwin point out in their excellent book Boudica: Iron Age Warrior Queen, that classical writers use a formula when talking about barbarians (anyone not Roman) in general, and barbarian women of power, in particular. The Romans seemed to be deathly afraid of any powerful woman—they did not fit in their social constructs. Whenever barbarian women leaders show up in Roman histories they are disparaged, denigrated, and described in a similar manner. As Stacy Schiff says in her biography of Cleopatra, “Cleopatra ceases to exist without a Roman in the room.” These women seldom have their own voices.

  So what’s an author to do? I decided to go with the popular narrative as described in Tacitus’ Annals and explain the possible alternative scenarios in this Note. Boudica (or a queen by another name given the title “Victoria”) almost certainly lived and led a rebellion against the Romans in AD 60-61, destroying three cities and defeating the IXth Legion. But the true motivations and details (including the location of the final battle) are impossible to tease out. In making my choices, I followed Tacitus and Dio closely (including a modernized version of Boudica’s apocryphal speech) with a slight difference. Tacitus has Boudica rebelling while Paulinus is subduing the druids of Mona. I wanted Cinnia to be at both events, so I put a little time between the two and added the destruction of Mona as a contributing factor for the rebellion. Tacitus doesn’t mention the fate of Boudica’s daughters, so I chose to have them escape and provide a way for Cinnia to survive. Who knows? Maybe I got it right.

  Once I put my characters on their journey, the next big event was the earthquake in Pompeii in February 62. This event is sometimes referred to as “the first destruction of Pompeii” because of the devastation it caused. Seventeen years later when Vesuvius erupted, there were still buildings under reconstruction and much evidence of repair. It also allowed Nero to reopen the Pompeii arena to gladiator games. The Senate had closed it in AD 59 after deadly riots broke out at the games between the citizens of Pompeii and Nuceria. There’s no evidence that Nero ever attended the games in Pompeii, but I put him there to further my plot and set up my next book.

  Which brings us back to the beginning: gladiators. One of the major myths about gladiators is that they always fought to the death. This is rooted in the origin of the gladiators where slaves were ordered to fight to the death at funeral games as a sacrifice to the gods. Gladiatorial games evolved over the years from a primarily religious rite to political theater. There are many primary resources on gladiators: classic literature, mosaics, frescos, graffiti, souvenirs, burials, and much more. All the evidence points to the conclusion that at the time I’m writing about, gladiators—especially the top ranked ones—were highly valued property.

  Much like modern athletes, the best gladiators commanded top money for their performances and numerous women wanted to have sex with them. Vendors sold souvenirs with their names and likenesses and fans covered the walls of buildings with graffiti extolling the skills (both fighting and sexual) of their favorites. It was rare for a crowd to demand the death of a favorite, even in defeat, if they fought well. Editors had to reimburse owners for the value of gladiators who died or were freed during their games, so it was in their economic interest to allow a defeated gladiator to live, unless the crowd was totally disappointed in the performance.

  I researched what is known about gladiatorial combat in this time period: the training, equipment, arenas, other entertainments (including executions), rituals, and rules. Some scenes from my book inspired by documented events include: the mass suicide of gladiator trainees, Afra’s cheetahs protecting their former trainer in the arena, the outcome of Afra and Cinnia’s fight, and Nero’s poetic speech at the end. My apologies to Martial, who wrote the original poem in AD 80, about Priscus and Verus, two male gladiators, who fought to a draw during the inauguration of the great Flavian Amphitheater (now known as the Coliseum). Emperor Vespasian gave them both victory and freedom.

  Throughout this book, although a work of fiction, I tried to be as accurate as possible in my details, and make clear in this Note where and why I made choices between what is disputed or unknown. But, I’m sure I screwed up somewhere and my readers will let me know. If you have questions or comments, I’d love to hear them. You can contact me through my website at faithljustice.com.

  GLOSSARY

  aedile—city office responsible for maintaining public buildings, regulating public festivals, and enforcing public order

  Ammit (also known as Ammut and Ahemait)—ancient Egyptian goddess of divine retribution

  Andraste (also known as Andrasta, Adraste, Andred)—patron goddess of the Iceni tribe, the goddess of victory, of ravens and of battles. Her name is thought to mean “the invincible one” or “she who has not fallen”

  ankh—key of life, the key of the Nile or crux ansata (Latin meaning “cross with a handle”), was the ancient Egyptian hieroglyphic character for “life”

  as (singular) asses (plural)—bronze (later copper) coin, smallest denomination minted by Rome, four made a sestertius and sixteen made a denarius

  Atalanta—a character in Greek mythology, a virgin huntress known for her fleetness

  aureus (singular) aurei (plural)—gold coin valued at 25 silver denarii or 100 sestertii

  ba—one of five parts of the soul believed by Egyptians to be everything that makes an individual unique; lives on after the body dies; sometimes depicted as a human-headed bird flying out of the tomb to join with the ka (another aspect of the soul, its vital essence) in the afterlife

  beastiarius (singular) beastiarii (plural)—animal fighters (as opposed to venatorii who were animal hunters) in the Roman games

  beneficiarii—retired legionnaires used for tax collecting and general policing by civil government

  Brigantes—Celtic tribe located in what is now northern England, ruled by Queen Cartimandua possibly from the time of the Claudian Roman invasion until her death about AD 69

  buccinae—curved horns used by the Roman military

  Campus Martius—“Field of Mars” a low-lying plain enclosed on the west by a bend of the Tiber River near Tiber Island, on the east by the Quirinal Hill, and on the southeast by the Capitoline Hill, originally used for pasturing horses and sheep, and for military training

  Camulodunum—town (modern day Colchester) established on Trinovantes land for retired Roman legionaries and their families, destroyed in Boudica’s rebellion

  carnyx—curved Celtic war horn

  Cartimandua—queen of the Brigantes, possibly from the time of the Roman invasion until her death about AD 69

  Cerealia—major festival celebrated for the grain goddess Ceres, held for seven days from mid- to late April

  Cernunnos—“The Horned One” a Celtic god of fertility, life, animals, wealth, and the underworld

  collegia—numerous private associations with specialized functions, such as craft or trade guilds, burial societies, and societies dedicated to special religious worship

  colonia—towns founded for Roman citizens; in Britain, those who had completed their military service in the Legions and were owed a grant of land

  consul—the highest elected political office of the Roman Republic; after the establishment of the Empire, the consuls were merely a figurative representative of Rome’s republican heritage and held very little power or authority, with the Emperor acting as the supreme leader

  Coritani (also Corieltauvi/Corieltavi)—Celtic tribe who lived in what is now the English East Midlands, in the counties of Lincolnshire and Leicestershire

  Cornovii—Celtic tribe who lived principally in the modern English counties of Cheshire, Shropshire, north Staffordshire, north Herefordshire and eastern parts of the Welsh counties of Flintshire, Powys and Wrexham

  denarius (single) denarii (plural)—a small silver coin worth sixteen
asses or four sestertii

  doctore—gladiator fight instructor

  domina/dominus—mistress/master

  editor—Roman noble who sponsored/gave gladiatorial games

  Faience—a quartz ceramic with a bright luster, usually blue-green that can be cast in molds and widely used for small objects from beads to statues

  fascinum—the embodiment of the divine phallus; refers to the deity himself (Fascinus), to phallus effigies and amulets, and to the spells used to invoke his divine protection against the evil eye

  fibula (singular) fibulae (plural)—an ornamental clasp designed to hold clothing together; usually made of silver or gold but sometimes bronze or some other material; used by Greeks, Romans, and Celts

  Fortuna—Roman goddess of fortune and personification of luck both good and bad; sometimes veiled and blind, as in modern depictions of Justice; also represented life’s capriciousness or fate

  Forum Romanum—a rectangular plaza located in a small valley between the Palatine and Capitoline Hills, surrounded by government buildings at the center of the city; the site of triumphal processions and elections; the venue for public speeches, criminal trials, and gladiatorial matches; the nucleus of commercial affairs in Rome

  gladius (singular) gladii (plural)—the primary sword of Roman foot soldiers; gladii were two-edged for cutting with a tapered point for stabbing during thrusting and a knobbed hilt; root for the term gladiator (swordsman)

  greave—metal leg guard used by soldiers and gladiators, extending from ankle to knee and tied at the back; ceremonial ones are highly decorated with images, sometimes gilded

  hasta (singular) hastii (plural)—thrusting spear with a leaf-shaped blade

  Iceni (also known as Eceni)—a Celtic tribe inhabiting roughly the modern-day county of Norfolk; according to Tacitus, the tribe ruled by King Prasutagus and rebelled against the Romans under their Queen Boudica in AD 60 or 61

  Imbolc—a Celtic seasonal festival marking the beginning of spring; associated with the goddess Brigid; generally celebrated on February 1

  insula (singular) insulae (plural)—“island”; an apartment building that housed most of the lower- or middle-class urban citizen population of Rome; ground-level floors housed taverns, shops and businesses, with living space upstairs; could be up to six or seven stories

  Isis—Egyptian goddess worshipped as the ideal mother and wife as well as the patroness of slaves, sinners, artisans, and the downtrodden; often depicted as the mother of Horus, the falcon-headed deity associated with king and kingship

  Juno—major Roman goddess, protector and special counselor of the state, sister and wife of the chief god Jupiter, patron goddess of the women of Rome

  Jupiter (Jove)—the chief deity of Roman state religion; king of the gods and the god of sky and thunder; personified the divine authority of Rome’s highest offices, internal organization, and external relations; presided over oaths and justice

  Kandake—Kushite title for queen

  kohl—black eye makeup made by grinding lead sulfide with other ingredients, used in Egypt and the Middle East for cosmetic purposes and to protect from the sun

  Kush—an ancient African kingdom situated on the confluences of the Blue Nile, White Nile and River Atbara in what is now the Republic of Sudan

  lanista (singular) lanistae (plural)—owner of a gladiator training school

  lar (singular) lares (plural)—guardian deities who may have been hero-ancestors, guardians of the hearth, fields, boundaries or fruitfulness; they observed, protected and influenced all that happened within the boundaries of their location or function

  Legio IX Hispana—(Spanish Ninth Legion) was one of four legions used by Aulus Plautius and Claudius in the Roman invasion of Britain in 43; Boudica’s forces destroyed its infantry as the legion moved to support Camulodunum; the cavalry and commander Quintus Petillius Cerialis retreated

  Legio XIV Gemina Martia Victrix–(Fourteenth Victorious Twin Legion of the God Mars) was one of four legions used by Aulus Plautius and Claudius in the Roman invasion of Britain in 43, and took part in the defeat of Boudica in 60 or 61

  Legio XX Valeria Victrix—(Twentieth Victorious Valerian Legion) was one of four legions used by Aulus Plautius and Claudius in the Roman invasion of Britain in 43, and took part in the defeat of Boudicca in 60 or 61

  Londinium—trading town established by the Romans (modern day London) and destroyed in Boudica’s rebellion

  ludus (singular) ludi (plural)—training school for gladiators; also elementary or primary school attended by boys and girls up to eleven

  marcellum—market building

  Mercury—a major Roman god, patron of financial gain, commerce, poetry, divination, travelers, boundaries, luck, trickery, and thieves; also the guide of souls to the underworld

  missio—reprieve; the loser in a gladiator contest is allowed to live

  mole—a massive structure, usually of stone, used as a pier, breakwater, or causeway between places separated by water; but, unlike a true pier, water cannot freely flow underneath it

  myrmillo (masculine) myrmilla (feminine)—(from mormylos or sea fish) style of gladiator using full helmet (usually crested with a fish), full-sized rectangular shield, gladius, leather articulated arm shield, and one greave

  Nuceria—Roman city in Campania, Italy; a riot between the citizens of Pompeii and Nuceria at the Pompeii Amphitheater in AD 59 resulted in a ten-year ban on gladiator games in Pompeii

  noxii—convicts (“noxious ones”) condemned to death in the arena in various ways: executed in mythological reenactments, forced to fight each other to the death, fed to wild beasts, etc.

  oppidum (singular) oppida (plural)—(“enclosed space”) large defended settlement associated with Celtic culture, common in the second century BC through first century AD; important economic sites, places where goods were produced, stored and traded; also political centers, the seat of authorities taking decisions that affected large numbers of people

  palaestra—open area used for sports training, usually a square or rectangle enclosed by colonnades along four sides creating porticoes and rooms for storage and bathing; in imperial Rome these were frequently attached to baths

  palla—outermost rectangular woman’s mantle/shawl worn over the shoulders and hair

  Pater Patriae—“Father of the Country” an honorific conferred by the Roman Senate since 386 BC; not all emperors were offered it and not all those who were offered it, accepted; Nero first declined the honor because of his youth, but accepted later

  peculium—any property held by a slave with permission from the slave’s owner; slave’s purse and contents

  peristyle—a columned porch or open colonnade in a building surrounding a court that may contain an internal garden

  perit—“He’s finished!” Cry from the arena crowds urging the death blow for a surviving losing gladiator

  pilum (single), pila (plural)—javelin used by the Roman army with a shank made of soft iron which bent after impact (rendering the weapon useless to the enemy who might throw it back) and entangling any shield it might penetrate making the shield useless

  Portus—Rome’s primary sea port, built by Claudius to handle large merchant ships including the grain fleet

  primus palus—“first pole” elite gladiator, first in the company

  procurator munerum—administrator responsible for organizing the games on the emperor’s behalf

  Pontifex Maximus—“greatest pontiff” the high priest of the College of Pontiffs, the most important position in the ancient Roman religion; it gradually became politicized until, beginning with Augustus, it was subsumed into the Imperial office

  Qore—Kushite title for king

  retiarius (masculine) retiaria (feminine)—(“net fighter”) gladiator fighting style featuring a lightly-armored (shoulder guard, padding on arm and legs) fighter with a leaded net, trident, and knife; usually paired with a secutor, but sometimes fought a myrmillo

&n
bsp; Rhakotis—a poor district in Alexandria mostly inhabited by native Egyptians; the name of the village where Alexander the Great built his city

  rostra—a large platform in Rome where speakers would deliver orations; named for the six rostra (warship’s rams) which were captured during the victory at Antium in 338 BC and mounted to its side

  secutor—(“pursuer”) gladiator fighting style developed to pair with the retiarius, similar to myrmillo with full shield, gladius, greaves, and articulated arm shield, but the smooth helmet encloses the whole head with only two eye holes as protection against the retiarius’ trident