Delphi Complete Works of Varro

by Marcus Terentius Varro

  X.

  Ille, Modos, quibus metirentur rura, alius alios constituit. Nam in Hispania ulteriore metiuntur iugis, in Campania versibus, apud nos in agro Romano ac Latino iugeris. Iugum vocant, quod iuncti boves uno die exarare possint. Versum dicunt centum pedes quoquo versum quadratum. Iugerum, quod quadratos duos actus habeat. Actus quadratus, qui et latus est pedes CXX et longus totidem: is modus acnua latine appellatur. Iugeri pars minima dicitur scripulum, id est decem pedes et longitudine et latitudine quadratum. Ab hoc principio mensores non numquam dicunt in subsicivum esse unciam agri aut sextantem, sic quid aliud, cum ad iugerum pervenerunt, quod habet iugerum scripula CCLXXXVIII, quantum as antiquos noster ante bellum punicum pendebat. Bina iugera quod a Romulo primum divisa dicebantur viritim, quae heredem sequerentur, heredium appellarunt. Haec postea centum centuria. Centuria est quadrata, in omnes quattuor partes ut habeat latera longa pedum * *CD. Hae porro quattuor, centuriae coniunctae ut sint in utramque partem binae, appellantur in agris divisis viritim publice saltus.

  [10.1] Scrofa resumed: “Each country has its own method of measuring land. Thus in farther Spain the unit of measure is the iugum, in Campania the versus, with us here in the district of Rome and in Latium the iugerum. The iugum is the amount of land which a yoke of oxen can plough in a day; the versus is an area 100 feet square; [2] the iugerum an area containing two square actus. The square actus, which is an area 120 feet in each direction, is called in Latin acnua. The smallest section of the iugerum, an area ten feet square, is called a scripulum; and hence surveyors sometimes speak of the odd fractions of land above the iugerum as an uncia or a sextans, or the like; for the iugerum contains 288 scripula, which was the weight of the old pound before the Punic War. Two iugera form a haeredium, from the fact that this amount was said to have been first allotted to each citizen by Romulus, as the amount that could be transmitted by will. Later on 100 haeredia were called a centuria; this is a square area, each side being 2400 feet long. Further, four such centuriae, united in such a way that there are two on each side, are called a saltus in the distribution of public lands.

  XI.

  In modo fundi non animadverso lapsi multi, quod alii villam minus magnam fecerunt, quam modus postulavit, alii maiorem, cum utrumque sit contra rem familiarem ac fructum. Maiora enim tecta et aedificamus pluris et tuemur sumptu maiore. Minora cum sunt, quam postulat fundus, fructus solent disperire. Dubium enim non est quin cella vinaria maior sit facienda in eo agro, ubi vineta sint, ampliora ut horrea, si frumentarius ager est. Villa aedificanda potissimum ut intra saepta villae habeat aquam, si non, quam proxime: primum quae ibi sit nata, secundum quae influat perennis. Si omnino aqua non est viva, cisternae faciendae sub tectis et lacus sub dio, ex altero loco ut homines, ex altero ut pecus uti possit.

  [11.1] “Many errors result from the failure to observe the measurement of the farm, some building a steading smaller and some larger than the dimensions demand — each of which is prejudicial to the estate and its revenue. For buildings which are too large cost us too much for construction and require too great a sum for upkeep; and if they are smaller than the farm requires the products are usually ruined. [2] There is no doubt, for instance, that a larger wine cellar should be built on an estate where there is a vineyard, and larger granaries if it is a grain farm.

  “The steading should be so built that it will have water, if possible, within the enclosure, or at least very near by. The best arrangement is to have a spring on the place, or, failing this, a perennial stream. If no running water is available, cisterns should be built under cover and a reservoir in the open, the one for the use of people and the other for cattle.

  XII.

  Danda opera ut potissimum sub radicibus montis silvestris villam ponat, ubi pastiones sint laxae, item ut contra ventos, qui saluberrimi in agro flabunt. Quae posita est ad exortos aequinoctiales, aptissima, quod aestate habet umbram, hieme solem. Sin cogare secundum flumen aedificare, curandum ne adversum eam ponas; hieme enim fiet vehementer frigida et aestate non salubris. Advertendum etiam, siqua erunt loca palustria, et propter easdem causas, et quod crescunt animalia quaedam minuta, quae non possunt oculi consequi, et per aera intus in corpus per os ac nares perveniunt atque efficiunt difficilis morbos. Fundanius, Quid potero, inquit, facere, si istius modi mi fundus hereditati obvenerit, quo minus pestilentia noceat? Istuc vel ego possum respondere, inquit Agrius; vendas, quot assibus possis, aut si nequeas, relinquas. At Scrofa, Vitandum, inquit, ne in eas partes spectet villa, e quibus ventus gravior afflare soleat, neve in convalli cava et ut potius in sublimi loco aedifices, qui quod perflatur, siquid est quod adversarium inferatur, facilius discutitur. Praeterea quod a sole toto die inlustratur, salubrior est, quod et bestiolae, siquae prope nascuntur et inferuntur, aut efflantur aut aritudine cito pereunt. Nimbi repentini ac torrentes fluvii periculosi illis, qui in humilibus ac cavis locis aedificia habent, et repentinae praedonum manus quod improvisos facilius opprimere possunt, ab hac utraque re superiora loca tutiora.

  [12.1] “Especial care should be taken, in locating the steading, to place it at the foot of a wooded hill, where there are broad pastures, and so as to be exposed to the most healthful winds that blow in the region. A steading facing the east has the best situation, as it has the shade in summer and the sun in winter. If you are forced to build on the bank of a river, be careful not to let the steading face the river, as it will be extremely cold in winter, and unwholesome in summer. [2] Precautions must also be taken in the neighbourhood of swamps, both for the reasons given, and because there are bred certain minute creatures which cannot be seen by the eyes, which float in the air and enter the body through the mouth and nose and there cause serious diseases.” “What can I do,” asked Fundanius, “to prevent disease if I should inherit a farm of that kind?” “Even I can answer that question,” replied Agrius; “sell it for the highest cash price; or if you can’t sell it, abandon it.” [3] Scrofa, however, replied: “See that the steading does not face in the direction from which the infected wind usually comes, and do not build in a hollow, but rather on elevated ground, as a well-ventilated place is more easily cleared if anything obnoxious is brought in. Furthermore, being exposed to the sun during the whole day, it is more wholesome, as any animalculae which are bred near by and brought in are either blown away or quickly die from the lack of humidity. [4] Sudden rains and swollen streams are dangerous to those who have their buildings in low-lying depressions, as are also the sudden raids of robber bands, who can more easily take advantage of those who are off their guard. Against both these dangers the more elevated situations are safer.

  XIII.

  In villa facienda stabula ita, ut bubilia sint ibi, hieme quae possint esse caldiora. Fructus, ut est vinum et oleum, loco plano in cellis, item vasa vinaria et olearia potius faciendum; aridus, ut est faba et faenum, in tabulatis. Familia ubi versetur providendum, si fessi opere aut frigore aut calore, ubi commodissime possint se quiete reciperare. Vilici proximum ianuam cellam esse oportet eumque scire, qui introeat aut exeat noctu quidve ferat, praesertim si ostiarius est nemo. In primis culina videnda ut sit admota, quod ibi hieme antelucanis temporibus aliquot res conficiuntur, cibus paratur ac capitur. Faciundum etiam plaustris ac cetero instrumento omni in cohorte ut satis magna sint tecta, quibus caelum pluvium inimicum. Haec enim si intra clausum in consaepto et sub dio, furem modo non metuunt, adversus tempestatem nocentem non resistunt. Cohortes in fundo magno duae aptiores: una ut interdius conpluvium habeat lacum, ubi aqua saliat, qui intra stylobatas, cum velit, sit semipiscina. Boves enim ex arvo aestate reducti hic bibunt, hic perfunduntur, nec minus e pabulo cum redierunt anseres, sues, porci. In cohorte exteriore lacum esse oportet, ubi maceretur lupinum, item alia quae demissa in aquam ad usum aptiora fiunt. Cohors exterior crebro operta stramentis ac palea occulcata pedibus pecudum fit ministra fundo, ex ea quod evehatur. Secundum villam duo habere oportet stercilina aut unum bifariam divisum. Alteram enim partem fieri oportet novam, alteram veterem tolli in agrum, quod enim quam recens quod confracu
it melius. Nec non stercilinum melius illud, cuius latera et summum virgis ac fronde vindicatum a sole. Non enim sucum, quem quaerit terra, solem ante exugere oportet. Itaque periti, qui possunt, ut eo aqua influat eo nomine faciunt (sic enim maxime retinetur sucus) in eoque quidam sellas familiaricas ponunt. Aedificium facere oportet, sub quod tectum totam fundi subicere possis messem, quod vocant quidam nubilarium. Id secundum aream faciendum, ubi triturus sis frumentum, magnitudine pro modo fundi, ex una parti apertum, et id ab area, quo et in tritura proruere facile possis et, si nubilare coepit, inde ut rursus celeriter reicere. Fenestras habere oportet ex ea parti, unde commodissime perflari possit. Fundanius, Fructuosior, inquit, est certe fundus propter aedificia, si potius ad anticorum diligentiam quam ad horum luxuriam derigas aedificationem. Illi enim faciebant ad fructum rationem, hi faciunt ad libidines indomitas. Itaque illorum villae rusticae erant maioris preti quam urbanae, quae nunc sunt pleraque contra. Illic laudabatur villa, si habebat culinam rusticam bonam, praesepis laxas, cellam vinariam et oleariam ad modum agri aptam et pavimento proclivi in lacum, quod saepe, ubi conditum novum vinum, orcae in Hispania fervore musti ruptae neque non dolea in Italia. Item cetera ut essent in villa huiusce modi, quae cultura quaereret, providebant. Nunc contra villam urbanam quam maximam ac politissimam habeant dant operam ac cum Metelli ac Luculli villis pessimo publico aedificatis certant. Quo hi laborant ut spectent sua aestiva triclinaria ad frigus orientis, hiberna ad solem occidentem, potius quam, ut antiqui, in quam partem cella vinaria aut olearia fenestras haberet, cum fructus in ea vinarius quaerat ad dolia aera frigidiorem, item olearia calidiorem. Item videre oportet, si est collis, nisi quid impedit, ut ibi potissimum ponatur villa.

  [13.1] “In laying out the steading, you should arrange the stables so that the cow-stalls will be at the place which will be warmest in winter. Such liquid products as wine and oil should be set away in store-rooms on level ground, and jars for oil and wine should be provided; while dry products, such as beans and hay, should be stored in a floored space. A place should be provided for the hands to stay in when they are tired from work or from cold or heat, where they can recover in comfort. [2] The overseer’s room should be next to the entrance, where he can know who comes in or goes out at night and what he takes; and especially if there is no porter. Especially should care be taken that the kitchen be conveniently placed, because there in winter there is a great deal going on before daylight, in the preparation and eating of food. Sheds of sufficient size should also be provided in the barnyard for the carts and all other implements which are injured by rain; for if these are kept in an enclosure inside the walls, but in the open, they will not have to fear thieves, yet they will be exposed to injurious weather. [3] On a large farm it is better to have two farm-yards: one, containing an outdoor reservoir — a pond with running water, which, surrounded by columns, if you like, will form a sort of fish-pond; for here the cattle will drink, and here they will bathe themselves when brought in from ploughing in the summer, not to mention the geese and hogs and pigs when they come from pasture; and in the outer yard there should be a pond for the soaking of lupines and other products which are rendered more fit for use by being immersed in water. [4] As the outer yard is often covered with chaff and straw trampled by the cattle, it becomes the handmaid of the farm because of what is cleaned off it. Hard by the steading there should be two manure pits, or one pit divided into two parts; into one part should be cast the fresh manure and from the other the rotted manure should be hauled into the field; for manure is not so good when it is put in fresh as when it is well rotted. The best type of manure pit is that in which the top and sides are protected from the sun by branches and leaves; for the sun ought not to dry out the essence which the land needs. It is for this reason that experienced farmers arrange it, when possible, so that water will collect there, for in this way the strength is best retained; and some people place the privies for the servants on it. [5] You should build a shed large enough to store the whole yield of the farm under cover. This shed, which is sometimes called a nubilarium, should be built hard by the floor on which you are to thresh the grain; it should be of a size proportioned to that of the farm, and open only on one side, that next to the threshing floor, so that you can easily throw out the grain for threshing, and quickly throw it back again, if it begins to ‘get cloudy.’ You should have windows on the side from which it can be ventilated most easily.” [6] “A farm is undoubtedly more profitable, so far as the buildings are concerned,” said Fundanius, “if you construct them more according to the thrift of the ancients than the luxury of the moderns; for the former built to suit the size of their crops, while the latter build to suit their unbridled luxury. Hence their farms cost more than their dwelling-houses, while now the opposite is usually the case. In those days a steading was praised if it had a good kitchen, roomy stables, and cellars for wine and oil in proportion to the size of the farm, with a floor sloping to a reservoir, because often, after the new wine is laid by, not only the butts which they use in Spain but also the jars which are used in Italy are burst by the fermentation of the must. [7] In like manner they took care that the steading should have everything else that was required for agriculture; while in these times, on the other hand, the effort is to have as large and handsome a dwelling-house as possible; and they vie with the ‘farm houses’ of Metellus and Lucullus, which they have built to the great damage of the state. What men of our day aim at is to have their summer dining-rooms face the cool east and their winter dining-rooms face the west, rather than, as the ancients did, to see on what side the wine and oil cellars have their windows; for in a cellar wine requires cooler air on the jars, while oil requires warmer. Likewise you should see that, if there be a hill, the house, unless something prevents, should be placed there by preference.”

  XIV.

  Nunc de saeptis, quae tutandi causa fundi aut partis fiant, dicam. Earum tutelarum genera IIII, unum naturale, alterum agreste, tertium militare, quartum fabrile. Horum unum quodque species habet plures. Primum naturale saepimentum, quod opseri solet virgultis aut spinis, quod habet radices ac vivit, praetereuntis lascivi non metuet facem ardentem. Secunda saeps est agrestis e ligno, sed non vivit: fit aut palis statutis crebris et virgultis implicatis aut latis perforatis et per ea foramina traiectis longuris fere binis aut ternis aut ex arboribus truncis demissis in terram deinceps constitutis. Tertium militare saepimentum est fossa et terreus agger. Sed fossa ita idonea, si omnem aquam, quae e caelo venit, recipere potest aut fastigium habet, ut exeat e fundo. Agger is bonus, qui intrinsecus iunctus fossa aut ita arduus, ut eum transcendere non sit facile. Hoc genus saepes fieri secundum vias publicas solent et secundum amnes. Ad viam Salariam in agro Crustumino videre licet locis aliquot coniunctos aggeres cum fossis, ne flumen agris noceat. Aggeres faciunt sine fossa: eos quidam vocant muros, ut in agro Retino. Quartum fabrile saepimentum est novissimum, maceria. Huius fere species quattuor, quod fiunt e lapide, ut in agro Tusculano, quod e lateribus coctilibus, ut in agro Gallico, quod e lateribus crudis, ut in agro Sabino, quod ex terra et lapillis compositis in formis, ut in Hispania et agro Tarentino.

  [14.1] “Now I shall speak of the enclosures which are constructed for the protection of the farm as a whole, or its divisions. There are four types of such defences: the natural, the rustic, the military, and the masonry type; and each of these types has several varieties. The first type, the natural, is a hedge, usually planted with brush or thorn, having roots and being alive, and so with nothing to fear from the flaming torch of a mischievous passer-by. [2] The second type, the rustic, is made of wood, but is not alive. It is built either of stakes planted close and intertwined with brush; or of thick posts with holes bored through, having rails, usually two or three to the panel, thrust into the openings; or of trimmed trees placed end to end, with the branches driven into the ground. The third, or military type, is a trench and bank of earth; but the trench is adequate only if it can hold all the rain water, or has a slope sufficient to enable it to drain the water o
ff the land. [3] The bank is serviceable which is close to the ditch on the inside, or so steep that it is not easy to climb. This type of enclosure is usually built along public roads and along streams. At several points along the Via Salaria, in the district of Crustumeria, one may see banks combined with trenches to prevent the river from injuring the fields. Banks built without trenches, such as occur in the district of Reate, are sometimes called walls. [4] The fourth and last type of fence, that of masonry, is a wall, and there are usually four varieties: that which is built of stone, such as occurs in the district of Tusculum; that of burned brick, such as occurs in the Ager Gallicus; that of sun-dried brick, such as occurs in the Sabine country; and that formed of earth and gravel in mounds, such as occurs in Spain and the district of Tarentum.

  XV.

  Praeterea sine saeptis fines praedi satione arborum tutiores fiunt, ne familiae rixent[ur] cum vicinis ac limites ex litibus iudicem quaerant. Serunt alii circum pinos, ut habet uxor in Sabinis, alii cupressos, ut ego habui in Vesuvio, alii ulmos, ut multi habent in Crustumino: ubi id pote, ut ibi, quod est campus, nulla potior serenda, quod maxime fructuosa, quod et sustinet saepe ac cogit aliquot corbulas uvarum et frondem iucundissimam ministrat ovibus ac bubus ac virgas praebet saepibus et foco ac furno. Scrofa, Igitur primum haec, quae dixi, quattuor videnda agricolae, de fundi forma, de terrae natura, de modo agri, de finibus tuendis.